Key research themes on governance and sustainable urban mobility

ABSTRACT

This article discusses the governance of sustainable urban development and in particular assesses the role of policy instruments to promote soft forms of governance associated with persuasion and coordination. These instruments are critically examined in terms of how they might help to promote greater policy integration and more sustainable development. Five types of strategies for promoting more sustainable transport policies are discussed: (1) policy indicators and targets, (2) benchmarking, (3) policy transfer and best practices, (4) policy experimentation/innovation, and (5) visioning/envisioning. The article is divided into four main parts. First, it presents an overview of recent trends in the governance of urban transport. Second, it examines the notion of policy integration, a central theme in discussions about sustainable transport and governance. Third, it considers how selected types of policy instruments might contribute to policy integration and sustainable urban development. Fourth, alongside the conclusions, suggestions are made for new research related to policy instruments and soft forms of governance in relation to urban transport.     

Hot or not? The role of cycling in ASEAN megacities: Case studies of Bangkok and Manila

The Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) recognizes the role of nonmotorized transport for sustainable urban development in its policy framework. National and local policymakers in Thailand and The Philippines, two tropical countries without a tradition of urban cycling, are increasingly paying attention to cycling as well. This article aims to assess the current situation and progress in cycling, using Bangkok and Metropolitan Manila as case study cities, and to describe the necessary conditions for advancing the significance of cycling in tropical megacities. This is done by operationalizing the so-called Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) framework, which has been used in transition studies since 2008, however, never for cycling. As such this article also “tests” this framework for its application in sustainable transportation. The two case studies are characterized with regards to the current role of cycling in the mobility system, its infrastructure, governance system, and existing research on the potential and barriers. We find that TIS can readily be applied to our cases, with the analysis showing that elements such as knowledge development, actor networks, e-bike adoption, infrastructure, resource mobilization and legitimation are not well developed; on the other hand, flat terrain, attention for cycling for health and environment, heavy congestion, expansion of public transport, growing bike industry, active university communities, and the emergence of advocacy coalitions, could open up opportunities for increasing its modal share.     

Cities, mobility and climate change

Societies gain enormous benefits from travel, as economies have become more globalised and as the new communications infrastructure allows international networking and travel at a low cost. There has been a true internationalisation of all activities, and travel forms an essential part of that process. However, this mobility is fuelled by carbon, and there is clear scientific agreement that carbon emissions are affecting the global climate with irreversible long term consequences. Transport is the one sector where a reduction in energy use and emissions is proving to be extraordinarily difficult to achieve despite some success in urban areas. This paper focuses on cities, mobility and climate change, highlighting recent trends in both developed and developing countries. It is argued that the current situation is unsustainable, and that transport must contribute fully to achieving carbon reduction targets. An alternative is presented, based on the sustainable mobility paradigm (Banister, 2008) that looks at ways to reduce the need to travel in cities. The belief that high mobility and technology provides the solution is misplaced, as technological innovation can only get us part of the way to sustainable transport, and this may facilitate more travel. There are opportunities for cities to switch to low carbon transport futures, where vision and action are based on a combination of economic, planning and technological innovations working in mutually supporting ways. Potentially, the future is bright for low carbon transport in cities, but the real question is whether there is the commitment and leadership to follow such a path.     

Shaping urban transport policies in China: Will copying foreign policies work?

After decades of rapid economic growth, Chinese cities now face serious urban transport challenges, such as congestion, air pollution, energy shortage, and global climate change. Efficient and equitable urban transport policies are essential to China’s sustainable development, in which urbanization plays a critical role. Can Chinese cities solve these challenges by copying or modeling the policies of other nations? This paper argues that understanding the unique contexts of Chinese cities is necessary for predicting whether policies implemented elsewhere will perform well in China. The study explores four examples of hotly contested urban transport policies. The previous experience of each policy is compared with its likely efficiency and distributional consequences in China. Specific attention is paid to how the policy context – the spatial and institutional characteristics of the Chinese cities – can affect the adoption of foreign urban transport policies in China. Suggestions regarding the four policies are proposed to policy makers, followed by conclusions and discussions.     

Transport,urban development and the peripheral poor in Colombia — Placing splintering urbanism in the context of transport networks

In rapidly growing cities the evolution of utility and communication infrastructures has enabled the creation of ‘premium networked spaces’ exclusively for wealthier groups thus deepening already large social inequalities. By the same token, in a context of spatially concentrated income-earning opportunities and other urban functions, as well as limited purchasing power, accessibility to adequate means of connectivity with the rest of the urban fabric can be a determining factor in overcoming conditions of poverty for residents in physically marginal areas.Within the framework of the splintering urbanism thesis, and using the case study of Soacha, a municipality adjacent to Bogotá, Colombia's capital city, we examine the apparent mismatch between the growth of low-income informal settlements in peripheral locations and the development of transport networks in the period 2000–2010. Our aim is to identify the effects on social and spatial marginalisation of an uneven provision of material infrastructures and services for mobility. We identify central elements in the structure of the networks of connectivity between Bogotá and Soacha, highlighting the main gaps that lead to a fragmented set of connections. We develop a set of criteria for planners and policy makers searching for a more informed analysis of transport supply and policy development practice for poor peripheral populations in similar regions and contexts.     

Powered-two-wheelers for city commuting: Insight from Australia's three largest capital cities

The journey to work receives a great deal of research attention due to the peak demand on the transport system. Cities are increasingly concerned with managing traffic congestion and reducing pollution and most of the focus of this research has been on cars, public transport, walking and cycling. In contrast, the role of powered two-wheelers (PTWs), including motorcycles and scooters, in commuting has received little attention, particularly in the context of cities in the developed world. This paper provides new insight into commuting by PTW by drawing on census journey to work data from Australia's three largest cities (Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane) combined with an intercept survey of PTW commuters in Melbourne. It explores the extent of, and changes in, PTW commuting as well as the demographics of PTW commuters. While PTWs account for only a small percentage of urban commuting in Australian cities, their use is growing rapidly and there is a concentration of commuting by PTW into city centres. PTW commuters tend to be high-income males in skilled professional and technical professions. The implication of these findings for transport policy are discussed.     

Towards inclusive transport landscapes: Re-visualising a Bicycle Sharing Scheme in Santiago Metropolitan Region

Bicycle Sharing Schemes (BSS) are re-emerging as promising components of urban mobility solutions worldwide. However, the lack of consistent collaboration strategies between different actors and institutions, which have been tested in a wide range of cities and contexts regarding their design, tender, operation and expansion, raises significant social and governance implications. Urban transport features as a melting pot for diverse policy objectives, ranging from business model innovation, public tendering, and accessibility increase to the equity and social justice agenda.By employing a Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) framework and by introducing alluvial diagrams and circular dendrograms to BSS planning through a mixed-methods approach, this article illustrates an innovative tool in managing BSS in the context of the Global South. The strength of such diagrams has been underestimated to date since they can be particularly useful for public and private urban transport planners and policy-makers. Visualising user flows in such a manner, particularly in near-live time, may offer valuable insight on the operational challenges of BSS. Findings of the cross-sectional survey in Santiago de Chile confirm that maintenance is significant for user satisfaction levels. Furthermore, decisions regarding BSS expansion and modification could be based on such analysis and diagrams due to the precise identification of both the busiest and those under-represented BSS stations based on revealed preferences.     

Trends in vehicle kilometres of travel in world cities, 1960–1990: underlying drivers and policy responses

Increases in private motorised urban vehicle kilometres of travel are shown to arise from population growth, urban sprawl, increased car ownership and decreases in vehicle occupancy. In particular, the worldwide increase in urban mobility since 1960 has been the direct result of increased affluence and the consequent greater accessibility of private motor vehicles, as well as population growth. Urban sprawl has significantly less influence, although it has been significant in USA, Canadian and Australian cities. Despite this, a number of cities have shown that clear policy initiatives can contain the growth of urban private motorised mobility.     

Identification and classification of public transport activity centres in Stockholm using passenger flows data

Urban geography could be characterized by analysing the patterns that describe the flows of people and goods. Measuring urban structures is essential for supporting an evidence-based spatial planning policy. The objective of this study is to examine how the spatial–temporal distribution of public transport passenger flow could be used to reveal urban structure dynamics. A methodology to identify and classify centres based on mobility data was applied to Metropolitan Stockholm in Sweden using multi-modal public transport passenger flows. Stockholm is known for its long-term monocentric planning with a dominant central core and radial public transport system. Strategic nodes along its radial public transport system have been a focus for development of sub-centres. Although the regional planning policy embraces a shift towards a polycentric planning policy, the results indicate that this has not been realized insofar.     

Who could benefit from a bus rapid transit system in cities from developing countries? A case study from Kampala,Uganda

The present rapid urban growth of cities from developing countries causes negative externalities such as lagging infrastructure development. In combination with rapidly rising motorized vehicle use this leads to severe traffic congestion affecting the mobility of the urban residents. Therefore many urban governments are planning to improve their transport and mobility situations with mass rapid transit systems of which a bus rapid transit (BRT) is a rather easy system to implement at reasonable costs. However, due to high urban inequalities the effects of urban traffic and potential improvements of the urban transport system for the diverse group of urban residents can differ significantly. In our case study Kampala (Uganda) four main groups were identified through cluster analysis of socio-economic and residential data gathered through interviews: extreme poor, poor, middle income and rich. Each group experiences a different mobility with the extreme poor being the most vulnerable group. The planned BRT system aims to decrease the average travel time but risks to exclude the lowest income class since not enough attention is paid to the affordability of the system to all residents. Therefore we argue for a policy that works from bottom up and pays attention to the internal diversity of the population.     

Urban transport justice

Many cities in the world seek to establish more sustainable urban transport systems with a view to reduce accidents, congestion, air and noise pollution, and to improve social interactions, liveability and amenity values. Against this background, this paper frames urban transportation as an issue of justice: contemporary transport systems are characterized by injustice, as they tend to favour and prioritize motorized transport, accepting that considerable environmental and social burdens are put on more sustainable forms of transportation, other traffic participants and society as a whole. To conceptualize ‘urban transport justice’, the paper discusses three dimensions where injustices are apparent: Exposure to traffic risks and pollutants; distribution of space; and valuation of transport time. It is argued that public and political recognition of urban transport injustices provides significant argument for changes in urban planning, transport infrastructure development and traffic management.     

The trilogy of distance, speed and time

Over the recent past there has been a dramatic increase in travel, mainly driven by the desire to move faster and over ever greater distances. This growth is unsustainable, and the continued growth in levels of mobility needs to be reassessed through substantially reducing the levels of consumption (energy and carbon) in transport. This means that travel activities should be based on shorter distances and slower speeds, with a more flexible interpretation of time constraints. Transport geographers should have a strong and instrumental role to play in this debate. This paper outlines the changing patterns of movement, before concentrating on urban areas where most daily travel takes place, and it examines the trilogy of distance, speed and time. The focus of the paper is on distance, and the role that land use planning and development, and technology can play in encouraging new forms of travel in cities, but there are strong implications on the ways in which speed and time are conceptualised. The conventional transport paradigm is heavily embedded in the belief that travel time needs to be minimised and consequently speeds need to be increased. The resulting impacts on travel distances have not been part of that debate, but reducing travel distances is central to sustainable transport.     

Night-time mobilities and (in)justice in London: Constructing mobile subjects and the politics of difference in policy-making

The growing interest in urban night-time economies and night-time transport policies presents an important context in which to examine how mobility justice is conceived and operationalised in policy-making. Literature on transport exclusion and transport justice documents the disadvantages experienced by different social groups and advances theoretical frameworks for distributive justice and transport accessibility. However, this literature has rarely considered the politics of whether and how mobility difference is recognised and planned for in transport policy, including issues of deliberative justice (participation) and epistemic justice (knowledge production). To address these research gaps, this paper engages with Sheller's (2018) theorisation of mobility justice and critically analyses the construction of mobile subjects in policy discourse on night-time mobility. We analyse policy documents part of night-time policy for Greater London to examine the extent to which the differentiated night-time mobilities across social categories (gender, age, ethnicity, income, etc.) are recognised – in other words, how the ‘politics of difference’ play out in transport policy-making. Findings show that the discursive construction of mobile subjects in London's night-time policy distinguishes between workers, consumers, and transport users, yet, these broad categories poorly account for differentiated mobility needs and practices. Publicly available data on differentiated night-time mobilities in London does not inform current policy discourse, obscuring disadvantages experienced by different groups of people moving through the city at night, and thus limits the capacity of existing policy interventions to address mobility injustices. These findings reaffirm the need for transport research to move beyond distributive justice and accessibility analysis, towards exploring the potential of thinking about distributive and epistemic justice for challenging the status quo of transport policy.     

The early days of shared micromobility: A social practices approach

Urban mobility may be entering a period of substantive changes as new transport technologies (facilitated by developments in electrification, automation, and web 2.0 technologies for distributed, real-time transactions) provide new possibilities for movement. The recent arrival of shared electric scooters in some cities has been the topic of much conversation, particularly in relation to appropriate spaces for e-scooter use, and the safety of e-scooter users and pedestrians. This paper, however, takes a wider look at the early days of shared micromobility in New Zealand cities. Mobility is intricately connected to the wider social and cultural configurations of daily life, including its power relations, equalities and inequalities, and the spatial relations between people, places and opportunities. This paper draws on an online survey completed by residents of four New Zealand cities in which shared electric scooters became available in late 2018 or early 2019. Using a social practices approach, it explores early changes in the materials, competencies, and meanings associated with urban mobility as a response to the electric scooter trial. It discusses the disruptive potential of these changes, both for urban transport and for wider social relations.     

Integrated transport planning in the UK: From concept to reality

This paper explores the need for new planning authority practices and structures that can accommodate new policy demands, synergies and approaches to urban management in the UK. Initially it considers recent UK government ideas on the integration of transport and land use planning, exploring how the concept has been located carefully in relation to both established and emerging debates about, for example, sustainability, mobility and structures of governance. The paper then moves on to consider the relationship between these concepts in EU transport discourse taking an example from Sweden of what an integrated urban transport policy might look like on the ground. The final section develops a model of integration and applies this analytic construct to assess integration practices and outcomes of urban mobility management at the local authority level in England. The research uncovers implementation failures including duplication of procedures, failures in communication and the lack of clear and resourced responsibilities.     

Assessing the role of the built environment and sociodemographic characteristics on walking travel distances in Bogotá

Planning for more sustainable mobility is an important goal for public authorities worldwide. Setting better conditions for pedestrians and cyclists has been related to many social benefits, such as less pollution and congestion. Local authorities, aware of the relationship between transport and land-use, are adopting planning tools to analyze growth in cities and their impacts using multiple indicators. This paper develops an econometric trip length model that correlates socioeconomic characteristics and built environment conditions with walking travel distances in the city of Bogotá, Colombia. A log-linear regression model was estimated using information for 2015 of Bogotá's household travel survey, along with data of employment and population by block obtained from official sources. The built environment component of the model serves to evaluate the effect of land-use patterns. A proof of concept was developed using land-use information extracted from a Cellular Automata Land-Use model calibrated for the city. From its results, some factors of the built environment were estimated and two scenarios were tested in this study. One depicts the average walking distance for households surveyed in 2015, and the other takes a simulation of land-use policy in developing a new urban area as an input. The results indicate that people living in areas were the land-use mix and job/population ratio are low, tend to have longer walking distances, suggesting the need to implement special policies that reallocate some activities and encourage higher land-use mix in the urban periphery where low-income households tend to be located. The proposed method can identify the impact of land-use policies in the distances traveled by walking, facilitating the impact assessment of land-use regulations.     

Czechoslovak light rail — Legacy of socialist urbanism or opportunity for the future?

This article focuses on the development of the Czechoslovak ‘rychlá tramvaj’ (‘fast tram’) systems in Prague, Bratislava and Brno. Its aim is to examine whether these systems meet the requirements of light rail and whether it is possible to continue their development as a functional light rail city transport system. A further aim is a detailed analysis of the conditions and contexts affecting the gradual development of ‘rychlá tramvaj’ schemes in three selected metropolises in the former Czechoslovakia.Urban development in Czechoslovakia was affected by the socialist planning system that constructed large housing estates on the edges of metropolises during the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, many commuters had to be moved between them and city centres daily; therefore, the necessity for high-capacity ‘rychlá tramvaj’ connections became apparent. After socio-political changes in 1989, a market economy was introduced and the trends of commercial and residential suburbanization have modified the spatial structure of the cities, and mobility has begun to be increasingly dependent on cars. In response to this, city councils departed from further development of ‘rychlá tramvaj’ schemes. Currently, the emphasis on sustainable mobility is apparent, principally because of smart city solutions, an environmental focus and a common European transport policy; thus, municipalities are rediscovering the virtues of light rail lines again. Because the ‘rychlá tramvaj’ systems from the 1970s and 1980s are still in operation, transforming them into modern light rail systems appears to be a convenient and cheap solution.     

Is there a good governance model for the delivery of contemporary transport policy and practice? An examination of Melbourne and Perth

Land use and transport integration (LUTI) is a contemporary planning policy and practice that supports sustainable transport. Attempts to implement LUTI have raised questions about the appropriate organisational structure and the role of governance to deliver this policy. This paper presents the discussions from two public fora held in 2008 in Melbourne and Perth, Australia. Their purpose was to examine the governance arrangements for land use and transport integration. It is concluded that integration of land use and transport agencies does not mean that land use transport integration will be achieved in practice. Rather than simple organisational re-structuring, a focus on networked governance, together with strong regulation, is conducive to inclusive policy development and the implementation of land use and transport integration policies.     

Transport policy in Australia—Evolution,learning and policy transfer

Urban transport policy in Australia has changed markedly over the period since the first generation of modern urban transport strategies were published in the 1960s. This is illustrated through a review of 43 transport strategies published for the five largest cities (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide) in Australia between 1965 and 2010. The review is complemented with observations from a survey of public servants in the policy and strategy divisions of state and territory transport agencies. The results of this research are examined using the Dolowitz–Marsh framework, considering the need to seek policy transfer, who is involved, what is transferred, from where policy lessons are learnt, the degree of transfer, constraints to policy learning and demonstration that transfer has occurred. The evidence for policy transfer and learning is mixed. Transport policy adopted by the states of Australia for their respective capital cities has been remarkably similar between the cities and has changed in a similar way over time, indicating the almost seamless transfer of concepts. Less positively, there is little published evidence that the performance of previous strategies has been critically examined and lessons learned, and that the approaches adopted in strategies are superior to alternative approaches and are able to achieve the objectives set for them.