National culture and labour-market flexibility

This paper develops a cultural explanation for labour-market flexibility, building on the work of Lipset. Using Hofstede's conceptual framework for categorizing national cultures, certain hypotheses are derived concerning the association of various labour-market institutions and rigidities connected with employment, pay bargaining the treatment of the unemployed, and Hofstede's dimensions of national culture. These hypotheses are tested on data for OECD countries, using ordinary least squares regression. The results demonstrate a strong statistical association between Hofstede's cultural indices and the various labour-market rigidities. In particular, there is a strong inverse relationship between Hofstede's MAS variable and all our labour flexibility variables. Cultural values reflecting feminine gender structuring appear to be strongly associated with labour-market inflexibility. There is also a strong statistical association between scores on the UAI dimension, and employment rigidities and pay-bargaining practices. Cultural attitudes to power inequalities as reflected in the PDI index inversely related to rigidities in pay-bargaining practices. While the results demonstrate only statistical associations, they are suggestive of the possibility that culture plays more determining role. This has important implications for deregulation/regulation strategies.     

An analysis of the managerial performance of Italian museums using a generalised conditional efficiency model

Museums are important cultural institutions having the mission of conserving, interpreting, researching and displaying heritage. The evaluation of their efficiency has been extensively investigated in the literature using different approaches and methods. In this paper, we employ a generalised conditional efficiency model to assess the true efficiency of Italian museums, i.e. the efficiency in the provision of museums' service potential, consistently dealing with the impact of the socio-demographic and institutional environment in which museums operate. Results show that the operational environment matters. In particular, conditional estimates suggest that higher income levels and larger hospitality sectors positively influence museums efficiency. Ownership matters: museums’ service potential is higher for private institutions while, among public institutions, efficiency is generally lower for state-owned museums.     

The world is not flat: Examining the interactive multidimensionality of culture and virtuality in teams

As organizations continue to spread their influence into foreign countries and take on increasingly complex tasks, the need for an accurate understanding as to how global, virtual teams function becomes more integral. At this time, although there are many organizations utilizing global, virtual teams, there is a dearth of literature that examines the impact of cultural differences within these teams. This paper aims to bridge this gap by offering an integrative interdisciplinary theoretical review, merging a lens of relevant cultural values, including Hofstede's five dimensions and extending to other conceptualizations such as the Triandis (1995) typology, with the Kirkman and Mathieu (2005) conceptualization of virtuality. Ultimately, theoretical propositions are provided for future examination of each cultural dimension. Finally, implications and future research are discussed in the hopes of providing invaluable insight as to the currently under-researched ‘global’ aspect of global, virtual teams.     

Using Followership to Develop New Leadership in Cultures with Greater Power Distance

Leadership theories abound in individualistic societies with the promise that anyone can become a successful leader by following certain guidelines. However, many of our existing theories are culturally specific to individualistic societies with low power distance. People from more collectivist cultures, in which power distance is greater, have a very different perspective of what they can do. In the current paper, I discuss how followership can be helpful for empowering people in large power distant cultures and offer five strategies, using Honduras as an example. The strategies are based on a theoretical examination of basic followership concepts with Hofstede's cultural dimensions of power distance and collectivism (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).     

Human resource management and cultural diversity: a case study in Mozambique

A limited number of studies in Africa have reconciled human resource management (HRM) programs with cultural diversity as represented by Hofstede's cultural dimensions. The objective of this study is to examine how Western-based HRM can be modified to embrace cultural diversity in an African context. A mixed methodology employed a survey, as well as a case study in Mozambique. The results indicate high levels of power distance, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and feminism that are very similar to Kenya. These dimensions differed across a spectrum of employee levels illustrating cultural hybridization at firm level in a multinational operating in Africa. The results also illustrate the importance of a range of health, family, and societal beliefs in the workplace. Finally, a series of HRM recommendations were developed in an African context with respect to the selection, training, performance measurement, and management programs of the company.     

Using Hofstede's cultural dimensions to explain sexually harassing behaviours in an international context

It is increasingly evident that sexual harassment concerns in the workplace are not limited by national boundaries. Yet, sexual harassment as a research topic has been studied mostly in the United States. Further, even in the US, very few studies have explored sexual harassment from a cross-cultural perspective. The current paper examines this major gap in the literature and focuses on how cultural dimensions are important and can significantly influence the likelihood to sexually harass in various countries. Specifically, this paper develops a model using Hofstede's cultural dimensions, and conceptualizes these dimensions as key variables in explaining differences in the social-sexual interactions between various countries. It is suggested that varying differences in these dimensions across countries may predict the likelihood of managers sexually harassing in an international and a cross-cultural context.     

Models for comparative analysis of culture: the case of Poland

This paper examines the main theoretical frameworks for analysis comparative cultural attitudes. A critical discussion of the work by Kluckhohn Strodtbeck, Hofstede and Trompenaars leads to a new theoretical approach for study the national cultural attitudes and norms of behaviour. A methodology based on research is designed to compare the 'internalized' norms of behaviour with 'perceived' norms. Two different but complementary techniques are applied to a sample of Polish students to investigate Polish cultural attitudes using Hofstede's dimensions. Significant discrepancy is found between what people perceive communicate in public as the 'national cultural norm', and what they have internalized cultural attitude and norm of behaviour. The findings from this exploratory research indicate that there are different levels of internalization of cultural attitudes, and respondents express different cultural values in response to different research tools.     

Comparative industrial relations theory: the role of national culture

This paper explores the use of national culture in comparative industrial relations theory to explain the cross-national pattern of industrial relations institutions. A critical review of the existing body of theory argues that it has not adequately explained cross-national differences in the main industrial relations variables. The review also establishes that, with few exceptions, national culture is currently given negligible weight as an explanatory variable. It is argued that a cultural theory of cross-national difference is required. Following a critical assessment of the work of Hofstede, a cultural model is developed based on his definition and specification of culture. Some hypotheses linking Hofstede's dimensions of culture with our industrial relations variables are derived. As an empirical test of the model, industrial relations variables are regressed on Hofstede's cultural indices. National culture is found to be significantly associated with all the major characteristics of industrial relations systems investigated. The paper concludes that national culture is the primary determinant of cross-national variations in industrial relations institutions and that culture is likely to be a force for ongoing diversity in labour market systems.     

Creative marketing strategies in small museums: up close and innovative

• Museums are seeing decreasing resources along with increasing competition (such as the entertainment industry's recent foray into the education arena) for their market share (TiLE, Oct 2002). The prevalent perception that nonprofit institutions as a sector are mismanaged also requires museums to become more businesslike in their management and their marketing (Kotler & Kotler, 1998 ; Andreasen & Kotler, 2002 ; Salamon, 2003 ). Although larger museums have more access to human and economic capital, this article demonstrates how the flexibility and agility of smaller institutions positions them well to leverage their resources with creativity and innovation. To give credibility to the museum examples, the discussion recounts how the American wine industry rose in prominence both at home and abroad by sidestepping traditional marketing research methods, using instead an approach that was more like art.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Insights into Innovation in European Museums

Abstract

Innovation has become a key tool enabling museums to adapt to the major changes that have taken place in recent decades in the milieu in which such organizations operate. However, countries' differing cultural policies, coupled with the particular nature of museums themselves (size, type of collection, organizational structure, system of funding, etc.), have a practical impact on the ability of such organizations to innovate and adapt to the new situation. In this context, our study posits three aspects through which innovation may appear in museums: technological innovation in management, technological innovation in visitor experience and organizational innovation. We also explore the extent to which the nature of cultural policies in different countries, how museums are managed and their size and funding impact each type of innovation. The empirical analysis was conducted for art and history museums in four European countries: France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom. We felt that exploring these relations in cultural organizations would be of interest and would make an important contribution to the field.     

Tainted museums: ‘selling out’ cultural institutions

• This paper examines the role of museums as repositories of cultural meaning and symbolic capital. As educational and cultural institutions, museums serve to legitimise works of art within the frame of an art historical context. However, our comparative case study reveals how the taken‐for‐granted role of the museum as an allegedly unbiased platform for disseminating the arts can be usurped for economic or political ends. Using the cultural settings of the Hong Kong Museum of Art and the Venezuelan art museum circuit, we examine via our case studies how legitimation in the arts may be jeopardised or misused if and when cultural institutions succumb to commercial and political pressures. By adopting a qualitative research design, we observe the macro‐context in which institutional roles are defined and played out, and demonstrate the ideological discourses at play in the role of these cultural institutions as meaning‐makers. Although they may be presented as neutral spaces, museums inadvertently serve to circulate socio‐political views. How the institution manages these views and unavoidable macro‐level forces will in turn influence the cultural credibility of the museum framework as a legitimising force on the cultural horizon. Attention is devoted to how these pressures can affect the production and consumption of art, offering an alternative perspective on the development of museum policies.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Curiosity's pleasure? Exploring motives for cultural consumption

Although there is a robust research framework describing several motivational factors explaining cultural consumption behavior, most of these research endeavors do not rely on specific theories. Therefore, based on three psychological approaches and previous research, this study aims to identify the main motives of people consuming various cultural goods (i.e., books, recorded music, historical monuments, and festivals). To further extend current studies, this research suggests a hierarchical structure of consumer needs and investigates the motivational differences between cultural consumption behavior and demographic variables (gender and age). A structural equation modeling was employed to confirm the structure of the consumers' drives indicating that six motives (entertainment, escapism, cultural exploration, learning/curiosity, family togetherness, and socialization) can sufficiently describe individuals' needs. The above dimensions can be sorted into three higher‐order types of motivation, which are the emotional, cognitive, and social ones. The results also revealed that there are significant differences in motivation depending on cultural participation as well as demographic variables. The current findings are important not only for academics, but also for art practitioners, who need to develop effective marketing strategies, increase consumer satisfaction, and meet their economic objectives.     

An exploratory study of stewardship for Chinese nonprofit organizations

This study examined how Chinese nonprofits practice stewardship and how stewardship principles influence nonprofit–donor relationships and donor retention. Fifteen qualitative in‐depth interviews were conducted with experienced fundraisers in China. Results showed that Kelly's stewardship principles were applicable in China; Chinese fundraisers practiced stewardship principles of reciprocity, responsibility, reporting, and relationship nurturing to maintain relationships with major gift and annual donors. Besides, practitioners also utilized a variety of communication channels, ranging from face‐to‐face, telephones, emails, to digital shared media such as WeChat and Weibo, in communicating with individual and general public donors. Finally, interviewees also provided evidence on the positive role of quality nonprofit–donor relationships in retaining donors. This study illustrated the current status of nonprofit fundraising practice in China and expanded the explanatory power of the stewardship theory. The findings are implicative for Chinese nonprofits professionals on how to develop their unique stewardship practice in managing relationships with donors.     

How a Firm's Domestic Footprint and Domestic Environmental Uncertainties Jointly Shape Added Cultural Distances: The Roles of Resource Dependence and Headquarters Attention

Even though many firms conduct most of their business domestically, international management research has remained remarkably silent on the role of a firm's domestic footprint in its internationalization strategy. We shed light on that role by exploring how the size of a firm's domestic footprint influences the cultural distance that the firm adds to its country portfolio when expanding internationally. Integrating resource dependence theory and the attention‐based view, we hypothesize that a firm's domestic footprint has a negative relationship with added cultural distance (ACD), and that domestic policy uncertainty strengthens this relationship whereas domestic demand uncertainty weakens it. We find robust support for our hypotheses in a sample of the world's largest retailers covering the period 2000–07, indicating that a firm's domestic footprint and domestic environmental uncertainties jointly shape cross‐cultural expansion strategies. Our findings suggest that ACDs reflect headquarters executives' desire to avoid ineffective foreign expansions, hinting at possible biases in studies of the performance effects of distance.     

The impact of cultural dimensions on Chinese expatriates' career capital

The existing expatriation literature confirms that international assignments (IAs) are an essential tool for developing international talent and global managers. However, the majority of relevant studies are conducted in Western developed contexts and neglect the effects on individuals from emerging countries such as China. In the Chinese multinational companies context, this paper explores the concept of career capital comprising knowing-how, knowing-whom and knowing-why. Using Hofstede's cultural dimensions, it investigates the impact of IAs on an individual's career capital. Twenty-eight semi-structured interviews with Chinese expatriates were conducted. Results suggest that the Chinese expatriates develop limited career capital from IAs. The research shows that the Chinese culture plays an important role in shaping organisational practices and individual behaviours and, consequently, the development of expatriates' career capital. It goes beyond the current individual and organisational focuses on IAs to include a cultural perspective on the development of career capital. Implications are rehearsed, exposing areas for further research.     

ePhilanthropy: using the Internet to build support

For nonprofit organisations the Internet represents an unprecedented and highly cost‐effective opportunity to build and enhance relationships with supporters, volunteers, clients and the community they serve. As ePhilanthropy has emerged, organisations have discovered that consistent and deliberate e‐mail communication that drives traffic to the organisation's well‐organised and informative website has become the key to success. Charities should approach the Internet as a communication and stewardship tool first and a fundraising tool second. Success will come not from an emphasis on the technology, but on cultivating and enhancing relationships. Copyright © 2002 Henry Stewart Publications     

Cross-cultural differences in upward ratings in a multinational company

Differences between countries in the favourability of upward ratings were examined in a multinational corporation. Data were collected from 6,400 subordinates in ten countries. The results showed that the US and European countries were higher than Brazil and Asian countries on a number of items. A discriminant analysis revealed sets of items that maximally discriminated between groups of countries. The results were interpreted post hoc based on Hofstede's (1984) study of country differences in cultural values. Some results indicated changes in values since Hofstede's data were collected twenty years ago, while others indicated that values in some countries have not changed. The results have implications for calibrating upward feedback and evaluating the need for, and likely effectiveness of, interventions to guide how an organization is managed.     

The experience of EMAS in three European countries: a cultural and competitive analysis

EMAS, the European Eco‐Management and Audit Scheme, has been open for participation for six years now. Looking at registrations per country, a concentration of registrations in northern European countries is evident. The first part of this article investigates potential reasons by applying two popular models. Geert Hofstede's four cultural dimensions are used to explain favourable or unfavourable conditions for EMAS in a country. Michael E. Porter's national diamond is used to investigate determinants for national competitiveness and their influence on environmental management. These two frameworks are applied to Germany as a benchmark and France and Spain as representatives of southern European countries. In the second part of the article conclusions are drawn from this investigation on the influence of national culture, conditions and incentives for EMAS in these countries. Lastly actions for increased participation in EMAS of southern European countries are presented. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and ERP Environment     

Work-Related Values of Malaysians and Japanese

Abstract

This paper re-assesses the ork-related values of Malaysians and Japanese through the use of Hofstede's frameork. A t-test as conducted to verify if there are any differences beteen the Malaysian and the Japanese samples. Results revealed that the means of most of the items making up the four Hofstede dimensions ere significantly different. The results also found the relative levels of three dimensions from the Malaysian and the Japanese samples to be similar ith those proposed by Hofstede. The most surprising finding hoever, as the lo masculinity level of the Japanese. Despite the generally supportive findings, a significant implication from this study is that researchers should not “blindly” acceptHofstede's indices.