Consumer Believability of Information in Direct-to-Consumer (DTC) Advertising of Prescription Drugs

Direct to consumer (DTC) advertising has attracted significant research attention, yet none has focused on empirical assessments of its overall impact on U.S. consumers nationally, and tying assessment to relevant behavioral outcomes. This paper addresses the ethical issue of DTC advertising providing a balance of product and risk information that is both understandable and believable, and contributes direction to those exploring this phenomenon. Richard F. Beltramini is currently Professor of Marketing in the School of Business Administration at Wayne State University. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Austin, and served on the faculty of Arizona State University for fifteen years. His teaching interests include advertising and marketing management, research, and strategy. His primary research focus is on the believability of marketing communications information, and he has published in the Journal of Advertising, Journal of Advertising Research, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, and a variety of other journals, conference proceedings, and books as well as co-editing Gift Giving: A Research Anthology. Dr. Beltramini has served on the Editorial Review Boards of a number of academic journals, as guest editor of special issues of the Journal of Business Ethics and the International Journal of Internet Marketing and Advertising, as international president of the American Academy of Advertising, as a member of the American Advertising Federation's National Academic Committee and several other professional and business organizations, and is active as a consultant to several international organizations. He is the recipient of several national competitive grants and awards for his teaching and research, including the National Science Foundation, is the only faculty recipient of both his school’s Excellence in Research and Excellence in Teaching awards, and is currently the first Board of Visitors Faculty Fellow. Prior to academe, Dr. Beltramini worked for Texas Instruments, Inc. and The Drawing Board, Inc., both in Dallas, and he has also worked as a Visiting Research Professor for J. Walter Thompson Advertising in Chicago, Honeywell Information Systems in Phoenix, and the Federal Trade Commission in Washington, D.C.     

Presumed Influence of Direct-to-Consumer (DTC) Prescription Drug Advertising on Patients: The Physician's Perspective

This study explored the influence of the presumed influence model in the context of DTC (direct-to-consumer) advertising. A survey of 404 physicians studied presumed effects of DTC advertising on patients and whether the presumed effects influenced physicians' support for regulation and response to patient requests. Results partially supported the proposed model. Physicians perceived the highest degree of DTC advertising influence on patients' inquiries with their doctors and requests for advertised drugs and the lowest degree for beneficial influence of DTC ads. Physicians tend to support government regulation of DTC advertising, and their support is consistent across different demographic and perceptual variables. While physicians' responses to patients' requests for an advertised drug is mixed, greater presumed detrimental effects predicted refusal of patient requests, even after controlling for physicians' demographic and attitudinal characteristics. However, acceptance of patients' requests and recommendation of other drugs are found to be unrelated to presumed DTC advertising influence. The results are discussed in relation to existing theoretical work and DTC advertising literature. Future research recommendations are also provided.     

Direct-to-Consumer (DTC) Branded Drug Web Sites Risk Presentation and Implications for Public Policy

Direct-to-consumer (DTC) branded drug Web sites inform consumers of certain specific facts, including risk information, about drugs. Prominently displayed risk disclosures can reduce the potentially misleading aspects of advertising information and encourage a deeper level of consumer processing. Although previous studies of DTC Web sites have examined the presence and absence of risk information, no research to date has evaluated the placement of risk information relative to benefit information on DTC Web sites or whether risk information is presented consistently in the DTC category. Bettman, Payne, and Staelin (1986) suggested that "the same information presented in different formats can result in different decisions" (p. 2). Schema theory can guide Web site development, as it suggests that consistency of information presentation in an on-line environment can help consumers maximize their ability to utilize information at the site. In addition, current regulatory practices (Food and Drug Administration [FDA] guidelines for fair balance in DTC ads, the Federal Trade Commission [FTC] "clear and conspicuous" standards for television and Web site disclaimers) suggest that consistency in information presentation can also help consumers comprehend information. This study, then, examines whether risk information presentation is consistent across DTC Web sites, and serves as a first step in the process of understanding what guidance might be necessary at DTC Web sites.     

The Effects Of Information Sources On Consumer Reactions To Direct-to-Consumer (DTC) Prescription Drug Advertising: A Consumer Socialization Approach

This study examines the process by which, and the extent to which, consumers' reliance on mass media and interpersonal channels for health information is associated with consumer responses to direct-to-consumer (DTC) advertising. By analyzing nationally representative survey data collected among a U.S. adult population, this study finds that those who rely more on mass media and interpersonal channels for health information form more positive attitudes toward DTC advertising. In addition, reliance on interpersonal channels for health information leads consumers to have more active discussions with their health professionals about the drug advertised. Implications for pharmaceutical marketing practitioners and DTC advertising researchers are discussed with reference to the heated debate surrounding DTC advertising in the wake of the recent Vioxx recall incident.     

Developing Measurement Scales of Organizational and Issue Legitimacy: A Case of Direct-to-Consumer Advertising in the Pharmaceutical Industry

The purpose of this paper is to explore the concepts of issue legitimacy and organizational legitimacy, providing a new measure of each construct. The scales were developed and tested using data collected through a statewide survey of Alabama residents. Assessments of issue legitimacy were based on perceptions of direct-to-consumer advertising, whereas assessments of organizational legitimacy were based on perceptions of the pharmaceutical industry as a whole. The findings provide evidence that organizational legitimacy can be reliably measured using a five-item scale and issue legitimacy can be reliably measured using a six-item scale. The implications of the results and potential uses of the scales are discussed.     

Ethical Considerations in the Use of Direct-To-Consumer Advertising and Pharmaceutical Promotions: The Impact on Pharmaceutical Sales and Physicians

The influence of direct-to-consumer advertising and physician promotions are examined in this study. We further examine some of the ethical issues which may arise when physicians accept promotional products from pharmaceutical companies. The data revealed that direct-to-consumer advertising is likely to increase the request rates of both the drug category and the drug brand choices, as well as the likelihood that those drugs will be prescribed by physicians. The data further revealed that the majority of responding physicians were either neutral or did not feel that accepting some types of gifts from pharmaceutical companies affected their ethical behaviors.     

The Impact of Stereoscopic Three-Dimensional (3-D) Advertising

The popularity of stereoscopic 3-D technology is encouraging advertisers to adopt this format as a new advertising tool in diverse contexts. This research investigates the impact of nonglasses and glasses types of stereoscopic 3-D advertising, and proposes a theoretical model examining the role of presence in advertising effectiveness. Due to their power to increase presence, both stereoscopic 3-D advertising formats have a significantly stronger impact on diverse marketing variables than flat 3-D advertising. A structural equation model reveals the process through which presence affects advertising effectiveness by enhancing enjoyment and increasing perceived product knowledge. In addition, the moderating effects of novelty and cybersickness on presence are identified.     

第十二届中国广告节大奖赛大奖再评

中国广告节是中国广告人自己的节日，而其中的大奖赛更是广告人最为看重的，是评比就会有争议，出结果就要有妥协，大奖赛的获奖作品就是“大佬”评委们妥协下的产物，为听到更多的声音，本刊特别邀请了非大奖赛评委的三位创意总监，针对本届广告节大奖赛全场大奖和全部余奖作品，展开二度评委，当然，此评无奖，有的只是真言。[编者按]     

The Impact of AI on the Advertising Process: The Chinese Experience

Knowing that the demand for advertising in a growing e-commerce market cannot be sufficiently addressed in a traditional advertising operation model, advertisers and e-commerce platforms apply artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in advertising to improve efficiency and meet the market demand. From observations in the Chinese advertising market over the past five years, the authors gain insight into how AI technologies are applied in the advertising process and propose that the advertising process powered by AI technologies is composed of four steps: consumer insight discovery, ad creation, media planning and buying, and ad impact evaluation. This new advertising process, which is supported by a data-based platform with algorithms at its core, is tool based, synchronized, and highly efficient. AI has reorganized and upgraded the traditional advertising process and improved advertising efficiency; however, the new process is still born out of the traditional process and is not yet a reengineered one.     

The Impact of Advertising on Consumer Demand for Beef:

Thi study used two related data sets to obtain new estimates of food shopper responses to prices and advertising. Supermarket scan data comprised the source of information of sales and prices. Chain level newspaper and broadcast media advertising in the area measured the marketing program. Unique features of the study include the use of item movement and the accomodation of possible cross media effects. Consequently, the paper presents a way of monitoring promotions and relating them to sales. Three fresh beef aggregates (ground, roasts, and steaks) are used to estimate the impacts of broadcast media and newspaper adevertising by a supermarket chain. New estimates of direct and cross advertising impacts are also reported.     

Using Eye Tracking to Assess the Impact of Advertising Appeals on Donor Behavior

This research examines print advertisements of nonprofit organizations (NPOs) using eye-tracking technology and a nonverbal, emotional scale to assess donor behavior. Attention to three areas of interest, including the text, face, and brand/logo, was visually tracked. Next, three eye-tracking metrics (Time to First Fixation, Fixation Count, and Total Visit Duration) and corresponding donor behavior were measured. The eye-tracking metrics were effective indicators of an advertisement’s propensity to stimulate donor behavior. The findings in this research show that NPO advertisements should encourage viewers to look at the face in the advertisement layout. The more times the subject went back and looked at the face, and the more total time spent looking at the face, the greater the likelihood they would recommend to others to donate. These characteristics are shown in this research to be those of negative emotional appeals.     

新媒介发展对广告主体的影响研究

<正>随着第五媒体的成熟,出现了短信广告、手机彩信广告、手机报广告、手机客户端广告、来电显示广告、二维码广告、网游植入广告、手机电视广告、定位广告、小区广播等丰富多彩     

The Social Reality of Depression: DTC Advertising of Antidepressants and Perceptions of the Prevalence and Lifetime Risk of Depression

This study is rooted in the research traditions of cultivation theory, construct accessibility, and availability heuristic. Based on a survey with 221 subjects, this study finds that familiarity with direct-to-consumer (DTC) print advertisements for antidepressant brands is associated with inflated perceptions of the prevalence and lifetime risk of depression. The study concludes that DTC advertising potentially has significant effects on perceptions of depression prevalence and risk. Interpersonal experiences with depression coupled with DTC advertising appear to significantly predict individuals’ perceived lifetime risk of depression. The study ultimately demonstrates that DTC advertising may play a role in constructing social reality of diseases and medicine. The findings strongly suggest that the social cognitive effects of DTC advertising are far-reaching, impacting pharmaceutical marketing strategy as well as presenting issues regarding public health and the business ethics of advertising drugs to consumers. Jin Seong Park is a doctoral student at the University of Florida in Gainesville. He earned his MA from Marquette University and BA from Korea University in Seoul, Korea. His research interests include health communication and DTC drug advertising, mood and heuristics in consumer information processing and judgments, and international advertising. Jean M. Grow is an assistant professor at Marquette University. She earned her PhD from University of Wisconsin-Madison and her BFA from the School of Art Institute of Chicago. Her scholarly work focuses on controversial advertising case studies. She has published extensively on Nike women's advertising, and her most recent scholarship focuses on DTC advertising of pharmaceuticals and public service announcements for Hepatitis C. In 2005, she coauthoured a book on creative strategy, Advertising Strategy: Creative Tactics from Outside/In (with T. Altstiel). Prior to joining the academy, she worked in the advertising industry with agencies such as DDB Needham, Foote Cone & Belding, J. Walter Thompson, and Leo Burnett.     

A Dual-Step and Dual-Process Model of Advertising Effects: Implications for Reducing the Negative Impact of Advertising on Children's Consumption Behaviour

Children are important targets of advertising campaigns from companies. However, children have been found to be particularly vulnerable to negative effects of advertising, and protecting children from these effects is an important task of consumer policy. Two important aspects have to be considered in this task. First, advertising affects judgements and behaviour not only during ad exposure but also in delayed consumption and purchase contexts. Second, advertising operates largely at an implicit level—during ad exposure as well as in consumption decisions. The current article introduces a dual-step (ad exposure vs. purchase/consumption) and dual-process (implicit vs. explicit) model of advertising effects on children. The model is based on a review of implicit advertising effects and implicit mechanisms of self-control. It implies that consumer policies intending to prevent undesired advertising effects should support interventions that strengthen advertising and purchasing literacy and, in addition, implicit self-control mechanisms in children. As self-control in consumption decisions is largely relevant for, and learned during, shopping and consumption, such interventions should focus on educating parents or other primary caregivers because they are the most likely persons to accompany children in such situations and have a great influence on children's implicit learning.     

Stakeholder Multiplicity: Toward an Understanding of the Interactions between Stakeholders

While stakeholder theory has traditionally considered organization’s interactions with stakeholders in terms of independent, dyadic relationships, recent scholarship has pointed to the fact that organizations exist within a complex network of intertwining relationships [e.g., Rowley, T. J.: 1997, The Academy of Management Review 22(4), 887–910]. However, further theoretical and empirical development of the interactions between stakeholders has been lacking. In this paper, we develop a framework for understanding and measuring the effects upon the organization of competing, complementary and cooperative stakeholder interactions, which we refer to as stakeholder multiplicity. We draw upon three forms of fit (i.e. fit as matching, fit as moderation, and fit as gestalts; Venkatraman, N.: 1989) to develop a framework for understanding stakeholder multiplicity based upon the direction, strength, and synergies of the interacting claims. Additionally, we draw upon the theory of stakeholder identification and salience of Mitchell et al. (1997), which we argue provides a more relevant and significantly more illustrative explanation of the nature and effects of stakeholder interactions upon the organization than the network approach of Rowley (1997). Furthermore, we ground our framework through reference to three stakeholder groups (i.e. governments, customers, and employees) and the stakeholder issue of concern for the natural environment. We propose a hierarchy of the multiplicity strength of influence of these three stakeholder groups. Potential measurement and implications are discussed.     

The Impact of the Great Recession on Financial Services Advertising: An Exploratory Study

We explore how advertising managers of financial services organizations have responded to the repercussions of the Great Recession in their advertising strategies. To this end, we compare print ads for financial services that appeared in six magazines at two periods in time: 2005, prior to the Great Recession and 2010, after the end of the Great Recession. We content analyzed 755 prints ads and found major differences in the advertising strategies from prerecession to postrecession, particularly in the type of appeals. We further examined these strategic shifts by audience focus (business-to-business and business-to-consumer) and gender focus (male, female, or both).     

The Impact of Violent Humor on Advertising Success: A Gender Perspective

Recent academic research has focused on the use of novelty and shock in advertising executions. One manifestation of this approach in American television advertising is the use of aggressive humor; a dramatic change in the way humor has historically been employed. This investigation examines two studies of the responses of men and women to violence in humorous advertising. The results of both studies reveal differences in the responses of men and women suggesting there may be a risk in coupling humor with high physical violence in ads targeted toward female audiences. The second study examines in a path model the role of perceived violations of social norms and perceived humor on the attitudes of men and women toward the ad and the brand. The poor response of women to more violence with humor ads is closely related to their perceived violations of social norms; for men, their more positive response to such ads is related to their perception of humor in the ads with humor and stronger violence.     

Beyond the Return on Advertising: Elasticity of the Return on Advertising as a Diagnostic Metric to Maximize Profit

With increased marketing expenditures, managers need to be equipped with valid and reliable measures capable of showing links between marketing investments and a firm's profitable performance. In this paper we demonstrate that traditional return on advertising (ROA) can be a misleading metric if a firm's goal is profit maximization. Then, we introduce a new diagnostic tool: the elasticity of ROA and show how this metric can help marketing managers to choose more profitable levels of advertising. This new measure has the same virtues as other traditional measures of elasticity and provides real advantages over the conventional metrics.     

A Shopping List Experiment of the Impact of Advertising on Brand Images

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of advertising on brand images. One hundred and twenty female cat owners were divided into three equal treatment groups. Each group was given a specified shopping list and asked to describe the personality of the female shopper. Two leading national brands of canned cat food served as the test items. The brands were at relative competitive parity, except in terms of advertising-achieved image association. Analysis of the data suggest that image distinctions are influenced by image-oriented advertising. The results support the view that a major function of advertising is in the area of the consumer's perception of particular brands.