Combining Contingent Valuation and Choice Experiments. A Forestry Application in Spain

When many good variants are to be valued, like in several forest management programs which differ in the attribute levels, the Contingent Valuation Method may not be a practical option, given the cost and time involved to value each variant separately. There are at least three alternative procedures in such situations. One (i) is to apply an attribute based valuation method like a Choice Experiment (CE); another (ii) is to conduct a CVM and a CE exercise and estimate a joint model; a third one (iii) is to use the CVM estimates to value a base scenario, and then use the CE results to adjust the CVM estimates for any new different scenario. A numerical simulation and an empirical application to an afforestation program in Spain show that the latter is the procedure that yields closer values to the CVM estimations, followed by (ii).      

Willingness to Pay for Ancillary Benefits of Climate Change Mitigation

Assessing the Willingness to Pay (WTP) of the general public for climate change mitigation programmes enables governments to understand how much taxpayers are willing to support the implementation of such programs. This paper contributes to the literature on the WTP for climate change mitigation programmes by investigating, in addition to global benefits, the ancillary benefits of climate change mitigation. It does so by considering local and personal benefits arising from climate change policies. The Contingent Valuation Method is used to elicit the WTP for ancillary and global benefits of climate mitigation policies in the Basque Country, Spain. Results show that WTP estimates are 53–73% higher when ancillary benefits are considered.     

Willingness to Pay for Environmental Improvements in a Large City Evidence from The Spike Model and From a Non-Parametric Approach

In this paper, the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) is applied in order toestimate the social benefits of a set of environmental and urbanimprovements planned for the waterfront of the City of Valencia (Spain) asa consequence of the expansion and restructuring of its trading port. Asthe data show a high rate of zero responses, we applied the Spike model,one of the most recent models in CVM literature, since traditional models(Logit and Probit) are not suitable, given the characteristics of our data.The non-parametric approach is also applied in order to test the validity ofthe Spike model. The results show certain similarities between the Spikemodel and the non-parametric approach.     

Cost benefit analysis of conservation efforts to preserve an endangered species: The Griffon Vulture (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gyps fulvus</Emphasis>) in Israel

The major goal of this study was to determine whether protective measures in the case of the Eurasian Griffon Vulture are in accordance with public priorities. To this end we used the Travel Cost (TCM) and Contingent Valuation Methods (CVM) to estimate its value. We also determined the break even point in the allocation of funds targeted to protection at the regional level and performed a cost-benefit analysis of conservation efforts on a national level in Israel. The value of the marginal vulture was found to be approximately 34,000 NIS at Gamla and 316,000 NIS at Hai-Bar Nature Reserves. The economic efficiency of feeding stations was examined from two aspects: At the regional level, the break-even point for a feeding station to be efficient was 0.24 and 2.20 vultures per year for the Hai-Bar and Gamla NRs respectively. At the national level, in most cases, the national project to save vultures, ‘Porsim Kanaf’ (‘Porsim Kanaf’ is the national birds of prey conservation project in Israel) passes a Cost-Benefit test based on the valuation results.     

干旱区草型湖泊湿地价值量化评估

本文以典型干旱区草型湖泊乌梁素海湿地为研究区,在实地调查和试验的基础上,依据资源经济学和生态经济学的理论和方法,针对乌梁素海湿地资源的特点,对乌梁素海湿地的价值进行了货币化评估。评估结果表明,乌梁素海湿地的总价值为28．24×10~8元,其中直接实物产品价值为7164．70×10~4元,直接非实物服务价值为18 193．43×10~4元,间接价值为81 960．58×10~4元,目前非使用类价值为17．51×10~8元。只有合理开发乌梁素海湿地资源,保护好这一对区域环境具有重要意义的干旱区湿地生态系统,才能实现乌梁素海湿地资源的可持续利用,保证湖区经济的可持续发展。     

用条件估值法评估九寨沟的游憩价值——CVM方法的校正与比较

自然游憩资源作为环境资源的一种,是最活跃的环境价值研究领域之一。条件估值法(CVM)是国际上用于游憩价值评估的两种经典方法之一,其评估结果受不同引导评估技术的影响。以九寨沟自然保护区为例,选择了在统计有效性方面具有相对优势的支付卡梯级法和1.5边界二分法,来评估其游憩价值。结果表明,主要由于"胖尾"偏差的影响,1.5边界二分法获得的支付意愿(WTP)要高于支付卡梯级法;在进行了偏差校正后,二者所获得的估值结果相当接近,说明本研究的内部有效性检验较为理想。研究认为即使对我国这样的发展中国家,CVM仍为一种富有前景的环境资源价值评估方法,不过必须建立在对CVM调查各个环节的精心设计、严谨实施和审慎分析的基础上。     

The total economic value of threatened, endangered and rare species: An updated meta-analysis

This paper updates a 1996 meta-analysis of studies using the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) to value threatened, endangered and rare species published in this journal by Loomis and White. A variable for studies conducted in or after 1995 was added to the model to test if new studies are systematically different from old studies and identify which explanatory variables influencing willingness-to-pay (WTP) for these species have changed over time. Generally newer studies yielded higher WTP. Variables such as the change in the size of the species population, payment frequency, survey mode, response rate, type of respondent, type of species, and a new variable for whether a species is a ‘charismatic megafauna’ or not, whether the species has use and nonuse value versus nonuse value only and year of the study, were found to significantly influence WTP. This model is used in a benefit transfer example and a comparison of original study estimates and model estimates is made to compare its accuracy. The average within sample benefit transfer error was 34-45%.     

The evaluation of river water quality improvements by the contingent valuation method

The results of an application of the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) to the estimation of the recreational benefits which would result from improvements in river water quality are described. This case study is used as a basis to discuss the wider, generic issues in the application of the CVM: in particular, the problems of defining the population who benefit; the nature of the goods; why they benefit; and the questions of validity and reliability. A series of recommendations both as to appropriate methodological procedures to be adopted in CVM studies are given and as to areas where further theoretical and methodological research is required.     

公益林生态效益价值居民支付意愿实证分析——以贵阳市为例

以贵阳市公益林为研究对象,采用条件价值评估法（CVM）,通过设计问卷、调查实施,对贵阳市居民公益林补偿的支付意愿（WTP）及影响因素进行了分析。结果显示：（1）73.6%贵阳市居民家庭对公益林生态效益价值有支付意愿,平均意愿支付额为每户家庭每年人民币213.96元;（2）支付意愿受社会经济因素综合影响,其中年龄、收入水平及环境关注态度对支付意愿具有显著影响,是影响支付意愿的主要因素。在对居民支付意愿影响因素进行分析的基础上,提出了一些建议性政策。     

旅游资源价值评估问题探析

旅游资源价值评估是目前旅游资源学、资源经济学和环境经济学等学科研究的热点和难点。本文在介绍旅游资源价值评估的理论基础上,回顾了旅游资源价值评估的国内外研究进展,详细介绍了TCM和CVM两种经典评估模型,并在此基础上提出了目前旅游资源价值评估存在的三大问题：第一,旅游资源价值构成体系尚未形成统一的认识,本文在参考已有的价值分类系统基础上,提出了旅游资源价值构成体系；第二,现有价值评估方法有待深入研究,本文指出了旅行费用法(TCM)和条件价值法(CVM)两种经典评估模型的不足；第三,旅游资源价值动态变化的影响因子体系尚未明确。     

Intertemporal Valuation of River Restoration

Willingness to pay for an environmental improvement is a function of how long it takes to deliver the improvement. To measure the effect of time on benefits, I utilize a discrete choice experiment that includes an attribute for delay until the improvement occurs and simultaneously estimate discount rates and valuation parameters. I estimate the present value of immediate and delayed Minnesota River Basin improvements using discount rates directly estimated from the econometric model. Compared to an immediate river basin cleanup, Minnesota residents lose almost half of the benefits when cleanup is delayed by 5 years.     

基于旅游费用法的长沙洋湖湿地公园游憩价值评估

城市湿地公园是城市生态系统的重要组成部分,具有极高的生态、社会和景观价值。文章在城市湿地公园迅速增长、相关理论研究数量有限的情况下,选取游憩价值评估最为成熟的旅行费用法作为评估方法、长沙市最大的城市湿地公园——洋湖湿地公园作为研究对象,通过运用问卷调查、实地访谈等方法对其游憩价值进行了评估,得出结论如下：公园目前游客实际旅行费用为4411.983万元,而其总游憩利用价值为81 578.473万元,相比之下,公园应有的游憩利用价值尚未得到充分发挥,存在很大程度的资源闲置,开发潜力巨大。     

TALL TREES, PEOPLE, AND POLITICS: THE OPPORTUNITY COSTS OF THE REDWOOD NATIONAL PARK

Because individuals in the marketplace directly face opportunity costs, they must balance marginal costs against marginal benefits. In contrast, in politics, the opportunity costs facing decision makers are diluted. Estimates of the social costs of various public programs are generally understated, while the estimates of social benefits are exaggerated
This paper places the establishment and expansion of the Redwood National Park within this framework and analyzes it as a public investment decision. It is shown that in the initial creation of the Redwood National Park in 1968, the costs of land acquisition and employment loss were underestimated, while the projections for gains in tourism were excessive. Despite the opposition of local landowners and residents, the Park was further expanded 10 years later in 1978. There was again a misstatement of costs and benefits and also the creation of an expensive new entitlement program to defuse the opposition of labor
The experience with the redwood National Park illustrates the results of the political process, which allows decision makers to internalize benefits and externalize costs. Emotion and rhetoric tend to displace a careful weighing of marginal costs and benefits     

价值判断对农地城市流转决策的影响分析

农地城市流转及其决策都具有特殊性，对农地价值的正确判断和估计是影响人们进行农地城市流转决策的最重要因素，仅追求农地经济使用效益最大化将导致农地城市流转决策的扭曲或失误。本文主张以发展国民经济，提升社会综合效益及改善城乡生态环境综合目标的实现为目标，改进现有价值判断，科学估算农地的使用价值与非使用价值，从而做出合理的有利于可持续发展的农地城市流转决策。     

Valuing cultural heritage in developing countries: comparing and pooling contingent valuation and choice modelling estimates

A substantial part of the United Nation’s World Heritage Sites (WHSs) can be found in developing countries, but many of them are in a bad state. Thus, there is a need to document the social benefits of these global goods in order to justify the costs of restoration and preservation programmes (RPPs). This study adds to the scarce literature on economic benefits of WHSs in developing countries, and reduces the need to perform very uncertain benefit transfers from European or US valuation studies. We apply Contingent Valuation (CV) and Choice Modelling (CM) to estimate the social benefits of RPPs for the My Son world cultural heritage site in Vietnam; both to foreign visitors and the local residents. We then compare the estimates from the CV and CM methods, and pool the results from the two methods. The results show that both CV and CM are suited to estimating the economic benefits of preserving cultural heritage of My Son. The two methods produce very similar results, which can be interpreted as a test of convergence validity. The pooling results give evidence to show that the CV and CM models have the same underlying preference structures. Thus, these valuation models can be successfully used in cost-benefit analyses to assess the benefits to cultural heritage of measures to reduce air pollution, soil erosion, climate change and other causes to deterioration of cultural heritage sites.

Valuing the non-timber forest products in the Mediterranean region

The potential of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the Mediterranean region as a source of livelihood and sustainable development has been widely recognized. Yet, surprisingly few efforts have been made to value them comprehensively. Valuation efforts usually focused on selected NTFPs traded on formal markets, at local level. This paper aims to provide comprehensive estimates of NTFPs benefits at national and regional level in the Mediterranean region. Six major groups of NTFPs are identified: firewood, cork, fodder, mushrooms, honey and other NTFPs. Valuation is based on a wide variety of techniques, drawing on official statistics, and supplemented by results of local surveys. It shows that at Mediterranean level, NTFPs provide annual benefits of about €39/ha of forests, accounting for about a fourth of the total economic value of forests estimated by this study. The average estimate for southern countries (€54/ha) is considerably higher than for northern (€41/ha) and eastern countries (€20/ha). The paper reveals the degree of importance of the main NTFPs benefits for the country groups and the region as a whole. It also discusses some reasons of concern when drawing policy tools for improving rural income and forest conservation in the Mediterranean.     

资本存量估算的再讨论——非土地资本与土地价值的区别

在回顾关于资本存量估算的已有研究的基础上,从估算资本存量时所采用的投资流量度量指标入手,对以往研究是否包含土地要素这一相对模糊的问题进行了判断。然后,基于现有的土地数量(面积)统计数据,讨论了估算土地价值量形式的必要性及其背后的经济学含义,并对土地资本与土地价值进行了对比分析。最后提出了基于一级土地市场估算土地价值的探索性方法,并给出了全国层面、省级层面和区域层面的土地价值估算结果,从增长趋势和地域分布的角度印证了土地价值与经济发展水平的相对一致性。     

Economic valuation of the Leuser National Park on Sumatra,Indonesia

The Leuser Ecosystem in Northern Sumatra is officially protected by its status as an Indonesian national park. Nevertheless, it remains under severe threat of deforestation. Rainforest destruction has already caused a decline in ecological functions and services. Besides, it is affecting numerous economic activities in and around the Leuser National Park. The objectives of this study are twofold: firstly, to determine the total economic value (TEV) of the Leuser Ecosystem through a systems dynamic model. And secondly, to evaluate the economic consequences of deforestation versus conservation, disaggregating the economic value for the main stakeholders and regions involved. Using a dynamic simulation model, economic valuation is applied to evaluate the TEV of the Leuser National Park over the period 2000–2030. Three scenarios are considered: ‘conservation’, ‘deforestation’ and, ‘selective use’. The results are presented in terms of (1) the type of benefits, (2) the allocation of these benefits among stakeholders, and (3) the regional distribution of benefits. The economic benefits considered include: water supply, fisheries, flood and drought prevention, agriculture and plantations, hydro-electricity, tourism, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, fire prevention, non-timber forest products, and timber. The stakeholders include: local community members, the local government, the logging and plantation industry, the national government, and the international community. The regions considered cover the 11 districts involved in the management of the Leuser Ecosystem. With a 4% discount rate, the accumulated TEV for the ecosystem over the 30-year period is: US $7.0 billion under the ‘deforestation scenario’, US $9.5 billion under the ‘conservation scenario’ and US $9.1 billion under the ‘selective utilisation scenario’. The main contributors in the conservation and selective use scenarios are water supply, flood prevention, tourism and agriculture. Timber revenues play an important role in the deforestation scenario. Compared to deforestation, conservation of the Leuser Ecosystem benefits all categories of stakeholders, except for the elite logging and plantation industry.     

A dynamic heterogeneous labour demand model for German manufacturing

There is currently general agreement amongst economists that the discount rate to compute the present value of benefits and costs in the economic evaluation of public policies is defined according to the social time preference approach. However, whether this rate has to be used for the discount of non-monetary health consequences is a question for which there is no satisfactory reply. In this paper, it is argued that such a reply rests on the estimation of the relationship between the individual time preference for health and money in the contexts of private and social choice. In support of this argument an empirical analysis has been carried out in which the individuals making-up a representative sample of the population of Zaragoza (Spain) have been faced with a series of hypothetical inter-temporal choices. Their replies have implicitly revealed their temporal preference rates and have led to the conclusion that health consequences are discounted at a higher rate than monetary consequences. This would appear to be contrary to the standard practice applied in the economic valuation of health programmes.     

应用意愿价值评估法,科学制订生态补偿标准

本文系统梳理了生态服务及其价值评估、支付意愿与补偿标准之间的理论联系,分析了当前生态补偿实践中存在的理论误区,指出充分考虑利益主体的意愿是科学制定补偿标准的必要环节,意愿价值评估法的应用将增强我国生态补偿标准的科学性。最后,提出了该方法在生态补偿实践中存在的问题和研究方向。