A survival analysis of ski lift companies

This article investigates the factors influencing the survival of 244 ski lift operators in Austria over the period 1995–2011. Both Cox proportional hazard and competing risk models with time-varying covariates are utilized to distinguish between ski lift operators that temporarily suspended operations (e.g. due to insolvency) and those that permanently stopped their service. The results show that early adoption of snowmaking facilities led to a significantly lower risk of failure. Introducing snowmaking at later periods (i.e. from 2000 onwards) did not have a significant impact. Size, elevation of the ski areas, local competition, and regional effects also play a significant role in the survival of ski areas, but these factors cannot explain temporary failures. Surprisingly, the probability of permanent exits and temporary failures is independent of variations in snow depth at the nearest weather station. A lack of accommodation capacity and economic recessions lead to a higher risk of both types of failures.     

Weather risk management in ski resorts: Financial hedging and geographical diversification

As weather volatility increases, weather risk has become a critical management issue in weather sensitive industries. This study uses ski resorts as an example to examine two promising weather risk management strategies: geographical diversification and financial hedging. The empirical analysis results suggest that financial hedging might be a more effective strategy for ski conglomerates. Guidelines for ski conglomerates to achieve better weather risk management outcomes are provided based on simulating the interactions between geographical diversification and financial hedging. Although based on ski resorts and snowfall risk, the methodology is also applicable to other weather sensitive hospitality businesses.     

Risk management of climate impact for tourism operators: An empirical analysis on ski resorts

The aim of this paper is to analyze the performance of hedging strategies based on snow and temperature options developed by ski operators to protect their profitability under adverse changes in climatic conditions. The setup is based on a joint non-parametric model for snow and temperature aimed at providing a modelling support for the assessment of the impact of these weather variables on the number of visitors at the ski resort. The analysis is carried out considering the case of Austrian Alps, and examines: i) the ability of the proposed approach to provide a realistic representation of the true data-generating process; ii) the variability reduction in the Profit and Loss of the ski operator offered by the suggested strategies; and iii) the tradeoff between the budget earmarked for hedging and profitability protection.     

Does artificial snow production pay under future climate conditions? – A case study for a vulnerable ski area in Austria

The prospects of increasing temperatures, a growing frequency of snow scarce winter seasons and rising energy prices raise questions about the future profitability of snowmaking. Therefore, we carry out a cost–revenue analysis of snowmaking based on projected daily snowmaking hours and visitor numbers until 2050 for a case study site in Austria. The results show that ski area operators are at risk of facing a substantial increase in total energy costs due to expected rising electricity costs, although the total amount of snowmaking hours is projected to slightly decrease because of shrinking feasible time for snowmaking (considering current snowmaking infrastructure). In the long run ski visitor numbers are projected to decline due to decreasing overall snow depths. Overall, the profitability analysis of skiing operations reveals that price increases in ski lift tickets, slightly higher than observed in the recent past, will be inevitable in order to keep skiing operations profitable in future.     

Using ski industry response to climatic variability to assess climate change risk: An analogue study in Eastern Canada

To accurately characterize the ski industry's risk to future climate change and varied quality of snow conditions, it is important to assess how the industry has managed and adapted to contemporary anomalously warm ski seasons. This is the first temporal climate change analogue study to use higher resolution daily performance data at the individual ski area scale, including reported snow quality, ski lift operations, slope openings, and water usage for snowmaking. The record warm winter of 2011–2012 in the Ontario ski tourism market (Eastern Canada) is representative of projected future average winter conditions under a mid-century, high greenhouse gas emissions scenario (RCP 8.5), which was compared to the 2010–2011 season which was climatically normal (for the 1981–2010 period). Supply-side impacts across the 17 ski areas during the analogue winter included a total average decrease in the ski season length (−17% days), operating ski lifts (−3%), skiable terrain (−9%), reduced snow quality (e.g., -46% days with packed powder), snowmaking days (−18%), and an increase in water usage for snowmaking (e.g., +300% in December). Demand-side impacts include a 10% decrease in overall skier visits, with a resort size-correlation (small −20%, intermediate −14%, large −8%). With reduced operational ski terrain and more frequent marginal snow conditions, visitor experience is adversely affected more frequently. Collectively, these findings identify differential impacts in the ski tourism market and can assist ski area managers, communities, investors and governments with developing climate change adaptation plans.     

Can the North American ski industry attain climate resiliency? A modified Delphi survey on transformations towards sustainable tourism

As global temperatures increase, does accelerating climate change represent an existential crisis or a manageable challenge for the ski industry? Despite considerable evidence demonstrating the global ski industry is in the early stages of a climate-induced transition, global research on ski industry stakeholder perspectives shows varied levels of climate risk awareness, a focus on future vulnerability, and limited engagement in adaptation. Within North America, research has focussed on the physical climatic impacts to ski operations and possible skier responses, yet there lacks insight into industry perceptions on current and future climate vulnerability. This study fills this important knowledge gap using a Delphi survey to engage 52 leaders from across the continent in a dialogue on strategic climate responsiveness. Results demonstrate North American ski industry leaders’ climate risk perceptions range widely, and opinions diverge over if or how to respond at both an industry and destination scale. Simultaneously, industry experts believe mountain tourists increasingly value nature-based activities, place-bound products, and corporate responsibility. Analysing industry leaders’ responses through Enlightened Stakeholder theory highlights how aligning supply-side environmental management with demand-side tourist experiences may create opportunities for new partnerships, innovations, policies, and strategies needed to achieve climate-resilient and sustainable futures.     

Does climate change matter to the travel trade?

This study evaluated the awareness of, attitudes toward and opinions about the ability of travel agencies in Hong Kong to help address tourism's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. The retail travel agent sector is a major player in the tourism distribution system, accounting for about 25% of travel activity, and is the primary distributor of package tours. In-depth interviews were conducted with senior managers and owners/operators of a sample of travel agencies in Hong Kong, followed by a survey of 485 front line staff. The study revealed senior managers adopted a range of neutralisation techniques to abrogate themselves from any personal or corporate responsibility in this issue. Front line staff were largely unaware and ill-informed, and mainly see their role as simply pushing products. Cluster analysis revealed five groups with diverse views: Cluster 1, the “Deeply concerned” group (11%); Cluster 2, the “Deep knowledge” group (6%); Cluster 3, the “Moderate knowledge and awareness” group (18%); Cluster 4, the “Concerned but unaware” group (31%); and Cluster 5, the “Neither concerned nor aware” group (34%). The combination of lack of leadership among managers and ignorance among front line staff means that neither feels responsible for, nor able to, address this issue.     

Do not blame the “bad” weather: Stimulating its poetic aesthetics in nature-based tourism destinations

The negative effects of on-site bad weather are generally recognized. However, the experiences of tourists engaging with bad weather are extremely complex and far from being a generalization of negative outcomes, especially as the positive aesthetic value of bad weather begins to gain attention. From an aesthetic perspective, taking complex ensembles of interacting natural elements including weather as aesthetic objects, this study constructs a robust theoretical framework to analyze these complex bad weather experiences. Through a mixed methods research design, this study identifies one of the possible negative impact mechanisms whereby bad weather can negatively affect perceived aesthetic quality, further negatively impact aesthetic emotion, and ultimately reduce tourist loyalty. Literary association and aesthetic sensitivity are revealed as boundary conditions that inhibit the negative effects of bad weather on aesthetic quality. Building on these findings, this study further advances our knowledge of the interplay of weather experiences and natural aesthetics.     

The impacts of weather on tourist satisfaction and revisit intention: a study of South Korean domestic tourism

This study explores the impacts of weather on tourist satisfaction and intention to revisit sites utilizing a survey of 1736 domestic tourists in South Korea. This study adds tourists’ perceived quality of weather to a path model that anticipates revisit intention and was originally based on the perceived quality of physical attributes and service, as well as tourist satisfaction. The results of this study show that the perceived quality of weather affects tourist satisfaction and revisit intention directly and indirectly, and that it correlates with the perceived quality of physical attributes and service. It was determined that the impact of weather perception on tourist satisfaction and revisit intention is higher in rainy weather conditions. The results of the study show that to sustain tourist satisfaction and revisit intention, efforts to moderate the negative impacts of uncomfortable weather conditions are required, especially in rainy weather.     

Visitors' perceptions of the use of cable cars and lifts in Wulingyuan World Heritage Site,China

This paper examines perceptions and attitudes towards the use of cable cars with specific reference to Wulingyuan World Heritage Site in China. A total of 45 respondents were interviewed using open-ended questioning and semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis suggests six motives for the use of the lift: (1) tight schedules generated by travel agents and tour operators, (2) lack of physical strength to walk to the summit, (3) group membership influences, (4) the saving of time, (5) lack of information about alternative approaches and (6) novelty of the lift. However, when questioned about sources of satisfaction, respondents tended to refer to other aspects of their visit. This raises questions of managerial significance, as in the past the construction of such lifts and cableways has been based on a premise of enhancing visitors' satisfaction with their visit, and this perceived advantage has been seen as outweighing possible adverse environmental impacts     

Cross‐cultural tourist behavior: An analysis of tourist attitudes towards the environment

In a cross‐cultural tourist behavioral study, skiers from three different countries were surveyed in order to understand their environmental awareness and knowledge. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was also used to discover their willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) for environmentally‐friendly skiing products. The results point to a general lack of knowledge and even confusion amongst skiers about environmental issues pertaining to skiing. However, skiers say they will be more likely to visit a resort that is environmentally‐responsible. Use of the CVM indicated a strong correlation between WTP and the cost of the holiday, level of income and level of environmental conscience. The majority of skiers would pay more for a “greener” ski resort, but significant differences in responses were found between the three cultures. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The Camping Climate Index (CCI): The development,validation, and application of a camping-sector tourism climate index

Camping is a nature-based tourism activity where individuals spend one or more night away from home in an outdoor setting. Inherent in the definition are time and space, as well as exposure to natural elements such as weather or extremes. This study introduces the novel Camping Climate Index (CCI) to explore the impacts of weather and climatic variability on camping occupancy and optimal camping conditions. Daily meteorological data for 29 for-profit camping locations is analyzed and matched with daily camping occupancy data for the tent, recreational vehicle, and cabin categories. The CCI is empirically validated for camping behaviors compared to other tourism indices including the Tourism Climate Index and Holiday Climate Index. This study is the first to create an index using observed camping occupancy data for the three categories of camping matched with daily weather data that also captures the overriding effects of extreme/adverse weather events.     

The Critical Relationship between Climate Change Awareness and Action: An Origin-Based Perspective

While it is now widely accepted by scientists and governments that human activity contributes to climate change, there is a lack of understanding whether this realisation is now gaining greater attraction with the general public than it had 5 or 10 years ago. Additional gaps in knowledge relate to the link between awareness and action, which could be hypothesised to have become stronger in light of evidence being produced of some projected climate changes occurring already. This article examines climate change awareness and the link with travel-related decision-making by adopting an under-utilised origin perspective in Wellington, New Zealand. The findings, generated by a household mail survey, indicate that the majority of the respondents are aware of tourism's contribution to climate change and think that it is likely that their lives in New Zealand will be negatively affected by climate change. However, when examining the respondents' recent holiday decision-making, it is evident that for the overwhelming majority, climate change awareness does not appear to influence travel-related decisions. This article concludes by discussing demand-focused measures aimed at reducing the GHG emissions generated by tourism.     

Adventure and ecotourism safety in Queensland: Operator experiences and practice

This study identifies the client injury experience and safety management practices of Queensland adventure and ecotourism operators, and to compare these findings with those from recent New Zealand surveys. The effectiveness of an on-line survey for collecting safety information from operators is evaluated in relation to the future development of an industry safety monitoring system. Some 60 adventure and ecotourism operators were surveyed, while in-depth interviews were conducted with four further Queensland operators. Survey findings indicated a relatively low level of reported incidents, with slips, trips and falls the most common incident type. Risk factors identified by operators related most frequently to adverse and changeable weather conditions and client skills and behavior, and a notable proportion of operators reported that they did not apply important safety management practices. A model of injury control is presented to assist operators in their risk management practice.     

Community participation in World Heritage Site conservation and tourism development

This study investigates the factors contributing to community participation in a World Heritage Site (WHS) using Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability (MOA) model. We examined the effects of these factors on three levels of community participation. The findings showed that motivation had the greatest positive effect on the low level of community participation. Opportunity had the greatest effect on the high level of community participation. Among the dimensions of ability, namely awareness and knowledge, the findings showed that more aware residents were more interested in low level of community participation, whereas residents with more knowledge were more interested in high level of community participation. This study contributes to the tourism development and WHS conservation and management literature by examining the effects of MOA factors on three levels of community participation. Moreover, this study has a number of practical implications for local authorities in terms of community participation.     

An analysis of snow options for ski resort establishments

This study proposes a pricing method for put options on snow level for tourism establishments operating in Palandoken ski resort in the east of Turkey. In the calculation of put prices historical densities and Edgeworth adjusted densities methods together with Alaton, Djehiche, and Stillberger (2002) method have been applied. The findings show that there may be significant differences in the prices calculated by the three different methods, hence enabling both parties, i.e. buyers and sellers, with bases in the negotiation process. As the study is primarily aimed at providing a framework for pricing put options on snow levels in general, it is expected that it would be of use not only for this particular ski resort but also for various ski resorts in the world.     

Environmental Management Systems (EMS) of Tour Operators: Learning from Each Other

This research determined to what extent tour operators in Western Canada who use natural, public-owned assets as a main feature of their business operations have developed formal or informal environmental management systems (EMS)and which EMS elements they use most frequently and most successfully. Furthermore, the research investigated which variables drive the use of EMS elements to ensure good environmental performance. The findings suggest that those operators who seek environmentally related business outcomes, possess supply-side tourism development values, and have more business experience, will have developed more sophisticated EMS and find these systems more useful in ensuring good environmental performance. With this information, park officials can develop a plan for knowledge sharing and the education of all tour operators. Park officials can design appropriate training and development programmes by considering the barriers that they might encounter in encouraging tour operators to implement certain policies and procedures. Tour operators can transfer some elements of EMS, widely recognised as useful, to other tour operators by ‘assimilation’, as few barriers exist to the implementation of these elements. However, if beliefs and attitudes must change before operators will use an element, learning by ‘accommodation’ will be a more appropriate approach.     

Conjoint Analysis of Downhill Skiers Used to Improve Data Collection for Market Segmentation

A review of academic and government sources suggested that six key attributes of ski resort attractiveness were: variety of runs, snow conditions, value for money, lift lines, staff friendliness and access to home. As part of a larger study in Victoria, B.C., Canada, a sample of 100 skiers completed personal interviews in which they were asked to rank order 29 resort profiles in terms of preference. Seventy skiers ranked the profiles for both short trips and long trips, with an additional 18 skiers evaluating short trips (total = 88 skiers), and an additional 12 skiers evaluating short trips (total = 82 skiers). Using conjoint analysis, the relative importance of the six attributes to ski resort choice was computed for both scenarios. Skiers were clustered, using these importance values from conjoint analysis. They were also grouped using demographic data, information on skier ability and motivation. Analysis of variance was used to test for significant differences between the groupings and analyse the validity and usefulness of the segmentation criteria.     

Hotel chain affiliation as an environmental performance strategy for luxury hotels

Stakeholders are increasingly aware of the potential of environmental performance to benefit their health; however, there is a paucity of sustainability studies addressing the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) performance and the brand equity of hotel chains. Unlike traditional economics that treat undesired outputs such as carbon emissions as costless, this research presents an accurate, concise and clear empirical examination of hotel chain affiliation strategy through the Malmquist-Luenberger index to measure the brand competitiveness of the strategy while considering carbon emissions reduction using objective official panel data from Taiwan. The findings reveal that a group of hotel chains has a significantly higher average energy efficiency and branding value than those of a group of independent operators when holistic carbon emissions reduction is considered. Thus, this study encourages stakeholders to promote green hotel policies to independent hotel operators to achieve a higher brand value with lower carbon emissions and to adopt greater use of business intelligence to assist the decision-making of hotel operators in conformity with the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).     

Impact of the ski industry on the Rio Hondo watershed

This essay examines the ecological impact of the ski industry upon the Rio Hondo watershed, located near Taos, New Mexico. Focus is on the primary impact of ski resort development upon river water quality and biota, and upon water quantity in the downstream system of irrigation agriculture. Secondary impact of resort development is analyzed insofar as it affects longstanding patterns of land and water rights ownership and use within the watershed. The watershed is considered as an ecosystem that includes the village-based agro-pastoral economy established during the early nineteenth century. It concludes that while the long-range impact of ski resort development upon river biology is uncertain, the increasing demand that expansion places upon surface water quantity threatens downstream community resource domains and irrigation agriculture.