Commercial mortgage underwriting: How well do lenders manage the risks?

Loan-to-value ratio and debt service coverage ratios have long been viewed as the two most important quantitative measures of the default risk of commercial mortgages. Option-based models of default provide strong theoretic support for the importance of original loan-to-value ratio. The same theoretical predictions have found strong empirical support in residential single-family mortgage analyses. However, recent empirical studies of commercial mortgage default have raised questions about the role of loan-to-value ratio in assessing the riskiness of commercial mortgages. These studies generally either find no relationship or a puzzling negative relationship between loan-to-value ratio and default. This paper uses a very large database of commercial loan histories to thoroughly investigate this issue. It finds strong evidence that loan-to-value and debt service coverage ratios are endogenous to the underwriting process. Lenders react to other—unmeasured—risk factors with credit rationing and pricing. As a result, unusually low loan-to-value ratio loans appear to have above average risk in other dimensions and their default probabilities are equal to or higher than average. The results show that the pricing spread that lenders establish as part of the underwriting process serves as an excellent summary measure of the riskiness of the loan. A test of lenders’ ability to appropriately price loan-to-value risk finds that, while there is some unpriced effect of loan-to-value ratio after controlling for the lender’s pricing, introducing lender pricing into the model removes the otherwise puzzling negative loan-to-value and default relationship previously observed in the literature.     

Are the stock and real estate markets integrated in China?

This paper examines the dynamic short-run and long-run co-movement between the real estate and stock markets in China by employing a continuous wavelet method. We use gross domestic product and M2 (broad money supply) as control variables to eliminate the common factors of the two markets and to identify the real nexus between them. The empirical results show that the co-movement between real estate and stock prices is weak in the short run, except during the financial crisis period. Since the stock market is highly volatile, while real estate prices are relatively stable, the two markets are less correlated in the short run. The results also show that real estate prices affect stock prices in the long run, which supports the existence of a credit-price effect in China. Real estate prices remained very high in most time periods. Enterprises and individuals can obtain funds from bank loans to invest in the stock market, thus raising stock prices. These findings indicate that the two markets are generally segmented in the short run but are integrated in the long run. The stabilization of the real estate market is critical for stability in the stock market, but not vice versa. Additionally, investments in the two markets may not provide a high level of risk dispersion in the long run in China.

     

Forecasting and explaining aggregate consumer credit delinquency behaviour

We model aggregate delinquency behaviour for consumer credit (including credit card loans and other consumer loans) and for residential real estate loans using data up until 2008. We test for cointegrating relationships and then estimate short run error correction models. We find evidence to support the portfolio explanations of declines in credit quality for consumer and for real estate loans, but support for the reduced stigma explanation was restricted to real estate loans. Evidence supportive of household-level explanations of irrational borrowing and unexpected net income shocks was found for consumer and real estate loans, but evidence of strategic default was restricted to the volume of consumer loans and real estate loans, and not for credit cards. We also found that the error correction model gave forecasts of the volume of delinquent consumer debt which were of an accuracy comparable to that of an ARIMA model.     

成交量、持仓量对我国大豆类期货价差波动影响的实证分析

采用GARCH(1,1)模型就成交量、持仓量对大豆类期货价差波动率的影响进行实证分析,结果显示：当期成交量、持仓量对大豆期货价差波动的整体影响是显著的;滞后成交量、持仓量对大豆期货价差波动的整体影响也是显著的;当成交量、持仓量同时进入条件方差方程时,它们对大豆类期货价差波动的影响整体上也是显著的。这一结论揭示了我国大豆期货市场信息传递过程,验证了我国大豆期货市场的信息非有效性,对期货市场投资者以及期货市场监管者具有一定的借鉴意义。     

Do real estate investors trade on momentum?

Real estate markets are known to be less-than-efficient for many reasons, but what roles short-term trading plays are unclear. Do short-term investors bring additional risk to the market and cause prices to deviate from fundamental values? Based on an extensive dataset of property transactions and a policy shock that substantially raised the cost of short-term trading in Hong Kong, we estimate ‘real estate risk’ with and without short-term trading based on return predictability, return volatility, and price dispersion. Our results show that as short-term investors exit the market, market returns are less predictable and less volatile, while prices are less dispersed cross-sectionally. Consistent with herding models in behavioral finance, the findings suggest that short-term investors are momentum traders who do not enhance price efficiency.     

房地产价格随机波动与房地产收益风险值(VaR)的研究

分析房地产价格的变化规律,科学准确地预测未来某一时点的价格,对房地产投资和国家针对房地产过热问题进行宏观调控具有重要指导意义。探讨了VaR方法在房地产收益波动性度量中的应用,并对上海住宅和办公楼价格指数时间序列收益率风险进行了实证研究;结果表明,SV模型能很好刻画价格指数实际特征,也能准确地预测房地产价格波动性。     

政策调整对我国房价的冲击效应研究——基于小波多分辨率分析与干预分析模型

借鉴货币最优政策模型,从机理上分析了房地产市场的变动规律,发现推动房价正常上涨的本质在于成本推动以及人口迁移下对住房的刚性需求,其他政策虽然短期内可调节房价波动,但长期过度使用会导致房价不可逆转的畸形。进一步基于小波多分辨率分析与干预分析模型讨论了我国政策冲击下的房地产市场发现:房价波动短期内会影响房地产销售,但长期内房地产销售不受房价波动影响,房价上涨与销售额增长均具有自身内在的推动力;政策调整对房价调控的冲击出现逆效性,短期内可以抑制房价上涨,长期内则会造成房价的更大波动。     

Hedonic price and depreciation indexes for residential housing: A longitudinal approach

An equilibrium price relation is derived for price changes in durable goods capable of generating a hedonic, or quality-corrected, price index, and an index of depreciation. The structure proposed is applicable particularly to housing markets, where longitudinal, or repeat-sale data are readily available from assessment or real estate sources. The separation permits not only the construction of a true price index, but also allows tests of various functional forms for depreciation, notably the geometric function. As an application of the proposed structure, estimates are presented for single-family dwellings in surburban London, Ontario, 1967–1975.     

Volatility of Price Indices for Heterogeneous Goods with Applications to the Fine Art Market

Price indices for heterogeneous goods such as real estate or fine art constitute crucial information for institutional or private investors considering alternative investment decisions in times of financial markets turmoil. Classical mean‐variance analysis of alternative investments has been hampered by the lack of a systematic treatment of volatility in these markets. In this paper we propose a hedonic regression framework which explicitly defines an underlying stochastic process for the price index, allowing to treat the volatility parameter as the object of interest. The model can be estimated using maximum likelihood in combination with the Kalman filter. We derive theoretical properties of the volatility estimator and show that it outperforms the standard estimator. We show that extensions to allow for time‐varying volatility are straightforward using a local‐likelihood approach. In an application to a large data set of international blue chip artists, we show that volatility of the art market, although generally lower than that of financial markets, has risen after the financial crisis of 2008–09, but sharply decreased during the recent debt crisis. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Illiquidity,transaction cost,and optimal holding period for real estate: Theory and application

Choosing the optimal holding period is an important part of real estate investment decisions, because “when to sell” affects “whether to buy”. This paper presents a theoretical model for such decision making. Our model indicates that the optimal holding period is affected by both systematic and non-systematic factors—market conditions (illiquidity and transaction cost) and property performance (return and return volatility). Other things being equal, higher illiquidity and transaction costs lead to longer holding periods, while higher return volatility implies shorter holding periods. Our empirical application suggests that the optimal holding period based on our model is quite consistent with previous empirical findings. In addition, we find that when illiquidity risk is incorporated the true real estate risk is significantly higher than the conventional risk estimate. Therefore, the current practice of real estate valuation, which is naively borrowed from finance theory, substantially underestimates real estate risk.     

不同类型调控政策对房地产市场影响的实证分析——以江苏省为例

近年来,国家对房地产宏观调控采取的多种政策,可划分为五类,即房地产开发投资规模、土地供应、金融信贷、住房供给结构、税收等政策。文中就这五类政策对房地产市场的影响进行了实证分析和定性分析。实证分析中采取了12个指标,利用了向量自回归模型和广义脉冲响应函数,就五类调控政策和市场形势对住房价格、成交量以及住房需求的影响时间和影响程度进行分析。定性分析中主要分析利率、税收、广义货币供应量M2、高房价等四个因素变化对住房价格、成交量以及住房需求的影响。     

中国城镇化进程对房地产价格影响的实证分析

使用城镇化率、流动人口占比、城镇居民人均总收入和房屋竣工面积4个变量指标来反映我国城镇化进程,运用随机效应面板数据模型,对比分析2005—2013年全国、较发达省份和发展中省份的城镇化进程对房地产价格的影响。实证研究表明：城镇化率提高、流动人口占比增加,对房价的影响实际非常有限;城镇居民人均总收入水平的增加才是引起房价上涨的最重要因素;房屋竣工面积的扩大则引起房价的下跌。区域对比研究还发现,由于城镇化进程不同,相比较发达省份,发展中省份的外来务工人员产生了更有效的住房需求。     

政府调控房价政策下的银行房地产信贷研究

依据国家统计局、中国人民银行发布的房地产市场以及房地产金融方面的统计资料,对近几年政府调控房价政策下我国房地产开发贷款、个人住房贷款余额变化以及在银行业贷款总额的占比等进行了分析,并对金融机构房地产信贷风险进行了评估。     

基于债务危机视角下的房价走势解析——来自深圳的证据

为了探讨债务危机视角下的房价走势,运用计量经济学方法构建时间序列模型,研究发现:1)债务危机实质是房地产危机,需要提高土地价格避免房地产危机和债务危机.2)地方政府、国企和商业银行主要通过增加地方债务规模、土地出让金、土地成交单位价格、房地产开发贷款和提高贷款利率差来增加房价.     

Subprime mortgages and the housing bubble

This paper explores the link between the house-price expectations of mortgage lenders and the extent of subprime lending. It argues that bubble conditions in the housing market are likely to spur subprime lending, with favorable price expectations easing the default concerns of lenders and thus increasing their willingness to extend loans to risky borrowers. Since the demand created by subprime lending feeds back onto house prices, such lending also helps to fuel an emerging housing bubble. These ideas are illustrated in a theoretical model, and tentative support is found in empirical work exploring the connection between price expectations and the extent of subprime lending.     

河北省房地产价格波动影响因素的实证分析

本文以河北省2004年第1季度至2009年第4季度的房地产平均销售价格及相关数据为样本,运用计量经济学的逐步回归法分析了河北省宏观经济基本层面对房地产价格的影响和作用程度。实证分析发现：人口因素、地区生产总值和货币供应量对房地产价格波动影响较大,其中货币供应量与河北省房地产的价格波动呈现正相关,对房地产价格的影响非常显著。因此,我国的货币政策要逐步关注各地区的房地产价格。     

经济增长推动房地产市场发展的实证研究——以上海为例

租金、售价等价格指标及其周期性波动,常用于衡量房地产市场的发展程度。在运用三部门模型分析区域经济增长如何影响区域房地产市场发展的基础上,提出上海经济增长推高房地产整体市场和住宅子市场的租金、售价的假设。选取5项指标,利用上海1998—2012年的城市统计年鉴数据,通过格兰杰因果检验方法进行实证检验。结果表明,上海整体房地产市场和住宅子市场的租金增长,均以经济增长为格兰杰因;两个市场的售价与经济增长无法体现因果关系。因此,租金是比价格更有效、更稳定的市场指标。     

基于DEA模型的房地产上市企业经营效率研究

本文选取了在沪深两市的A股上市的14家房地产企业2016-2020年的年报数据,运用DEA方法研究了房地产企业的经营效率。本文通过分析发现:房地产经营效率整体水平一般,无论是整体经营水平、技术管理水平,还是规模大小的适宜程度都存在一定的提升空间。     

房地产金融市场的影响因素研究

随着我国房地产业迅速发展,房地产金融正在走向成熟,对房地产金融的研究也更加理论化、系统化。本文利用1997-2007年各省宏观数据,运用变截距固定效应模型进行分析,发现房地产金融业日趋市场化、规范化,信贷规模受实体经济的影响日益增加,产出水平、房价水平和城市人口数量对房地产金融市场均具有显著影响。     

Information effects of loan portfolio quality on bank value

In this paper, the authors test whether loan-loss reserve announcements by individual commercial banks can have contagion effects on the banking industry. It is found that increased loan-loss reserves related to LDC debt do not have an effect on other banks. However, increased loan-loss reserves related to bad real estate loans elicited a negative share price response at other banks. The signal from a loss reserve adjustment is dependent on the reason for the adjustment. While LDC debt problems were restricted to money center banks and were well publicized, real estate loan problems can be contagious throughout the industry. Consequently, signals of real estate loan problems at some banks can cause a reduced valuation of other banks.