教育不平等与收入分配差距的研究综述

本文首先对国外有关教育不平等系数的测定方法进行了总结与评述,其中着重介绍了教育基尼系数的测度方式。随后,从理论与实证两个层面对教育不平等与收入分配的关系研究进行评述,并在既有研究的基础上,对相关后续研究提出进一步的研究思路。     

教育扩展与收入不平等

教育是决定收入分配的重要因素。教育扩展与收入不平等变动之间存在着倒Ｕ型关系，即在教育扩展初期，收入不平等会扩大，只是到教育扩展后期，收入不平等才会缩小。４９个国家的数据验证了这一假设。这种倒Ｕ型变动是教育扩展之扩张效应与抑制效应共同作用的结果，扩张效应源自教育供给小于教育需求所导致的不同水平教育者之间工资差距的扩大，而抑制效应则源自教育供给大增之后的竞争效应和渗漏效应     

功能性和规模性收入分配的内在联系:模式比较与理论构建

利用基尼系数分解框架,本文将功能性和规模性收入分配相联系,统一地解释了收入分配变动的三种模式。研究发现,以自由竞争为特征的"盎格鲁—撒克逊模式",收入不平等源于日益扩大的技能工资差距和较低水平的社会保障;强调国家干预的"莱茵模式",其较低内部工资差距和较完善的福利制度缓解了劳动收入份额下降对总体收入不平等的冲击;"中国模式"体现了转型经济的特征,劳动收入份额、技能工资差距以及社会保障的变化都成为近年来收入不平等迅速扩大的重要来源。"中国模式"造成了基尼系数上升和劳动收入份额下降的双重分配结果,也是目前解决我国收入分配问题的难点和着力点。理清两大分配的内在联系有助于政府采用有效政策手段,改善收入分配失衡的状况。     

研究生教育层次结构对科技创新的影响:“扩张尖部”还是“夯实底基”?

高等教育普及化背景下,“卡脖子”的科技创新问题备受关注。基于我国2003—2017年省级面板数据,实证检验研究生教育层次结构对研发、转化两类科技创新活动的影响。结果显示:研究生教育层次结构变动的科技创新效应主要集中于高技术领域,在研究生教育具备一定规模的前提下,研究生教育的层次结构提升能够促进高科技研发,对科创成果转化也具有显著正效应。在控制研发与转化的互动机制、更换变量测度、更换模型后,该结论仍稳健。研究认为,研究生教育层次结构调整须遵循“需求与条件相结合”的约束机制,考虑研究生教育布局的区域结构差异,以“夯实底基”作为“扩张尖部”的前提。同时,为最大化“扩张尖部”对科技创新的促进作用,各地应围绕博士教育资源构建人才战略体系。     

技能偏向型技术进步必然加剧工资不平等吗?

劳动经济学界在20世纪90年代形成了共识:美国等OECD国家从70年代末到90年代末的教育升水(不同教育水平工人的工资差距)持续上升是由技能偏向型技术进步导致的。但90年代共识无法解释第二次世界大战后美国在技能偏向型技术进步下教育升水并非总是上升的事实。此外其理论基础在于技能偏向型技术进步下抑制低技能劳动力需求的腐蚀效应和提升高技能劳动力需求的市场规模效应会加剧工资不平等。本文指出其理论基础的缺陷,并将教育效率和劳动力市场的技能供求关系整合在一个技能偏向型技术进步与工资不平等都处于内生演化的动态模型中。本文证明技术进步率的提升在短期会提升工资不平等,但当教育系统的效率处于一定的区间时,技能偏向型技术进步在长期会降低工资不平等。因此,本文的研究挑战了90年代共识的悲观论点,并丰富了有关技能偏好型技术进步对于工资不平等影响的研究。     

中间产品进口、技术溢出与中国制造业的工资不平等

中间产品进口的技术溢出是国际贸易影响熟练劳动与非熟练劳动之间工资不平等的一个重要机制。本文运用中国制造业的面板数据,实证检验了中国制造业从R&D资本存量丰富的发达国家进口中间产品及其技术溢出对中国工资不平等的影响。结果表明,由于物化型的技术溢出,中间产品进口既通过实现熟练劳动力与国际先进R&D资本互补效应,又通过技能偏向的知识学习效应和劳动生产率效应,提高了中国制造业熟练劳动力的工资和就业份额,扩大了熟练劳动力与非熟练劳动力之间的相对工资差距,加剧了工资不平等。随着熟练劳动力供给的增加,工资不平等呈现出先上升后下降的趋势。     

经济增长过程中工资分配的变动——基于中国经济数据的实证分析

工资分配是居民共享经济增长成果的具体体现.工资分配的变动与技术进步使用偏向有关,本文认为,技术进步偏向利用资本、节约劳动时,工资分配比重呈下降趋势;技术进步偏向利用劳动、节约资本时,工资分配的比重呈上升趋势.并通过实证分析指出,我国工资分配比重下降是技术进步偏向于使用资本、节约劳动造成的,进而揭示提高居民工资分配比重,必须推动我国技术进步的使用偏向由利用资本、节约劳动向使用劳动、节约资本的方向转变.     

浅谈我国教育对收入分配公平的影响

教育对收入分配公平有着重要的影响。多数研究认为，教育水平的提高会降低收入分配不平等程度，教育不平等会加剧收八分配的不平等。教育与收入分配不平等之间不仅存在密切关系，而且这种关系比较稳定，尽管不能拒绝平均受教育年限扣收入分配不平等程度之间的倒U型关系，但现阶段中国正处于例U型曲线项点左侧，平均受教育年限的增加不是降低而是提高了收入分配的不平等程度。同时，社会公平是教育公平的前提，收入分配不会平将妨碍教育公平。     

住户特征、受教育程度与收入不平等——基于回归方程的分解

本文以中国营养与健康调查数据库(CHNS)中2000-2009年住户调查数据为基础构建非平衡微观面板,并采用回归方程法以及Shapley值法对收入不平等进行分解分析。实证分析结论显示,受教育程度为总体收入不平等的首要影响因素,财产因素、城乡差异因素与地区禀赋因素也是造成总体收入不平等的重要力量,而其余住户特征的影响较为微弱。这意味着,加强均等化供给教育、医疗等有助于提升人力资本的民生性公共物品,是改善收入分配行之有效的办法;其次,推动城乡与区域间统筹发展对于收入分配的改善具有重要的现实意义。     

教育对中国居民收入的影响分析——基于分位数回归和收入分布的考察

教育作为人力资本形成的最主要因素,影响着收入分配,但教育对不同收入水平人群的效应并不相同。本文采用分位数回归方法估计教育回报率,以分析教育对收入水平的影响,并通过考察教育扩张引起的收入分布位置和形态的变化来分析教育对收入不平等的影响。研究结果表明,性别、城乡、单位所有制类型以及职业类型对各分位点上的教育回报率影响显著;受教育程度提高使收入分布位置右移、离散程度增加,教育扩张加剧收入不平等;而右偏程度减小又减弱收入不平等程度;总体上说教育对收入不平等的影响作用被削弱了。     

The impact of education expansion on wage inequality

The findings on education expansion and income inequality have important implications for policymakers to implement effective policies to reduce income inequality. This study attempts to explain how education expansion affects income inequality by education distribution and the rate of return to education. We decompose the effect of education expansion on wage gaps into price effect and structure effect. We compare the income inequality from 2002 to 2013 using the Chinese Household Income Project (CHIP) 2002 and CHIP2013 survey data and employ FFL decomposition method. Our findings suggest that income inequality increased in 2013 and that income inequality among the high-income groups increased even more significantly. The structure effect of education expansion on income inequality is negative, when average education increases one year, the income gap between 80th and 20th will decrease 1.2%, in other words, education expansion decreases income inequality by allowing a wide range of individuals to attend college. However, this effect is offset by the price effect, which is positive and much more significant in magnitude. One extra year of average education will increase income gap by 29% which means that the demand for high-skilled labour is increasing faster than the supply and thus lead to the increasing premium for higher education return.     

Real option,human capital investment returns and higher educational policy

This paper incorporates the concept of real option into a modified Harris–Todaro model to investigate the relationship between higher education and unemployment rates. We found that the real option value of waiting to invest in graduate school education will decrease when the expected wage rate of labors with an undergraduate degree becomes relatively lower than that with a graduate degree. As a result, more undergraduate students will decide to go to graduate schools immediately after graduation. As the supply of labors with a graduate degree increases and the job creations fail to meet the increasing demand, those who cannot get a graduate-level job will be willing to accept job offers lower than their education level. Our modified Harris–Todaro model shows that it will lead to an increase in the number of unemployed and underemployed higher educated labors. This explains why the unemployment rates for higher educated labor are relatively high in some developed countries.     

Measuring Inequality of Access to Higher Education in India

This paper uses data from the 71st NSS round (Education Survey: January–June 2014) to estimate the probabilities of person in India, between the ages of 18 and 22 years, of currently attending graduate or post-graduate courses in institutions of higher education , conditional on their social and economic status, their gender, their marital status, and their urban or rural location. It then examines inequality by social group in the quality of education received. Using the technique of inequality decomposition it estimates the proportionate contributions of the above factors to inequality in the interpersonal distribution of the probabilities of currently attending higher education. It compares how access to higher education has changed between the 64th NSS (July 2007–June 2008) and the 71st (January–June 2014) rounds of the NSS.

     

Educational Inequality and the Expansion of UK Higher Education

In this paper we explore changes over time in higher education (HE) participation and attainment between people from richer and poorer family backgrounds during a time period when the UK higher education system expanded at a rapid rate. We use longitudinal data from three time periods to study temporal shifts in HE participation and attainment across parental income groups for children going to university in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. The key finding is a highly policy relevant one, namely that HE expansion has not been equally distributed across people from richer and poorer backgrounds. Rather, it has disproportionately benefited children from relatively rich families. Despite the fact that many more children from higher income backgrounds participated in HE before the recent expansion of the system, the expansion acted to widen participation gaps between rich and poor children. This finding is robust to different measures of education participation and inequality. It also emerges from non‐parametric estimations and from a more detailed econometric model allowing for the sequential nature of education choices with potentially different income associations at different stages of the education sequence.     

Education, corruption, and the distribution of income

We examine how the interaction between education and corruption affects institutional reform and economic development. While corruption reduces average income and education, education increases not only output and hence potential corruption rents, but also produces more informed electorates that better monitor government actions. We find that economies with intermediate levels of education remain in a poverty trap since the level of skills creates sufficient corruption rents but not enough monitoring. Economies with low or high levels of education can escape the poverty trap, and inequality plays a key role in determining whether this occurs through a change in institutions or an expansion of education.     

Reforms and education inequality in Ghana

We analyze the evolvement of education inequality and the gender gap in Ghana before and after two major education reforms. Using different measures of inequality, our findings suggest that the gender gap at the basic school level has closed following the introduction of the education expansion policies, but inequalities persist at the postbasic school levels and across regions. We further demonstrate that the educational expansion–schooling inequality nexus is best illustrated by an inverted U-shaped Kuznets curve. We find that after an average of 6 years of schooling has been reached, inequality starts to decline, and gender equality can be achieved when the average years of schooling reach 9.     

中国农村家庭脆弱性的测量与分解

在理论层面上,本文在效用理论基础上对脆弱性进行了定义并对其分解以反映消费的不平等性和波动性。在实证分析层面上,本文使用CFPS(Chinese Family Panel Studies)数据对中国农村家庭脆弱性进行量化与分解。量化结果表明多数农村家庭是脆弱的;分解结果发现相对于村间不平等,村内不平等是脆弱性的主要组成部分。家庭脆弱性及五个分解部分对家庭特征集合变量的OLS回归结果表明:增加农村家庭收入是降低其脆弱性最有效的手段;提高劳动力平均受教育水平能够有效降低家庭脆弱性,但大学教育支出会显著提高家庭的脆弱性水平,这较好地解释了目前出现的农村籍高中生弃考大学这一现象;新型农村合作医疗和社会保险能有效降低农村家庭脆弱性;社会资本、更大的家庭规模和更高的劳动力占比有利于降低家庭脆弱性,这能较好地解释中国农村家庭频繁的送礼活动以及倾向于组建大家庭的现象。     

因患寡,而患不均——中国的收入差距、投资、教育和增长的相互影响

本文结合联立方程模型和分布滞后模型,研究了收入差距、投资、教育和经济增长的相互影响。研究发现:(1)收入差距在即期对投资有非常强的负面影响,之后影响变为正,再逐渐下降至微弱的负,从长期来看,收入差距对投资的累积影响始终为负;(2)收入差距对教育的影响较弱,其累积影响始终为正;(3)由于投资对于经济增长的作用超过了教育,因此收入差距对于经济增长的间接影响主要来自于投资的渠道。从累积效应来看,收入差距对于经济增长始终呈现出负的影响。同时,我们也发现,经济增长有利于降低收入差距。因此,控制收入差距有利于经济增长,并反过来有利于缩小收入差距,从而可能实现平等与增长相协调的目标。     

Education stock and its implication for income inequality: The case of Asian economies

This study develops a quadratic relationship between education and income inequality among Asian developing economies for the period from 1960 to 2015. Panel cointegration and fully modified OLS is applied for the estimation of long‐run coefficients. The results show that initial, primary, secondary, and tertiary enrollment increases inequality. However, the effect of education on income inequality becomes negative after a certain threshold level (i.e., 97.5% for primary, 43.5% for secondary, and 11% for tertiary). Thus, this result proves the Kuznets phenomenon of an inverted U‐shape relationship for primary, secondary, and tertiary enrollments.     

Human capital and income inequality in India: is there a non-linear and asymmetric relationship?

The article attempts to provide empirical evidence on the relationship between human capital and income inequality in India in a non-linear and asymmetric framework. To capture both long-run and short-run asymmetries, we have employed the non-linear autoregressive distributed lag approach using the relevant data from 1970 to 2016. Findings of the article suggest that education expansion acts as a major factor in reducing prevailing high income inequality, that is an increase in average years of schooling results in more equal distribution of income. In contrast, high economic growth, inflation and trade openness create unequal distribution of income. The asymmetric causality test results indicate that there is unidirectional causality running from female human capital, economic growth and inflation to income inequality. From a policy perspective, we suggest that education expansion should be used as a powerful tool to mitigate income inequality by emphasizing the quality of education. At the same time, policies geared towards social benefits, inclusive education, training for unskilled workers and price stability should be encouraged to attain fair income distribution in India.