CAP Reform in the Dairy Sector: Remove Export Subsidies and Retain Milk Quota

CAP Reform in the Dairy Sector: Remove Export Subsidies and Retain Milk Quota The reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy of June 2003 introduced major policy changes, In the dairy sector the aim is to decrease price distortions between the EU and world dairy markets through successive reductions in milk intervention prices. However, the milk quota system is still in place and successive increases in milk quotas are planned. The question is whether these dairy reforms are going in the right direction given the three main characteristics of the EU dairy sector. First the price inelasticity of both milk supply (due to quota) and domestic demand means that price distortion mainly affects the distribution of economic surplus between consumers and producers but does not generate significant net losses in economic welfare. Second, the ‘large country’ position of the EU on the world market means that the EU should remove all export subsidies, which will reduce EU exports and increase world prices. Third, the projected increase in EU aggregate demand for milk favours a reduction in all subsidies. The CAP is going in the right direction in the dairy sector. But to reduce price distortions all subsidies should be removed as soon as possible and the milk production quota should be retained. La réforme de la PAC laitiére: supprimer les subventions aux exportations et conserver les quotas La réforme de la PAC en juin 2003 est un changement majeur. En ce qui concerne le secteur laitier, l'idée consiste à diminuer les distorsions entre les prix européens et ceux du marché mondial par une série de réductions progressives du prix d'intervention. En même temps, le système des quotas reste en place et des accroissements progressifs sont envisageés pour les droits à produire. La question. est alors de savoir si une telle politique est bien orientée, compte tenu des trois caractéristiques principales du secteur laitier européen. En premier lieu, la faible élasticité-prix aussi bien de l'offre (à cause des quotas) que de la demande, implique que les distorsions, si elies affectent la répartition des bénéfices entre producteurs et consommateurs, ne génèrent pas de très grandes pertes sociales au niveau du bien-être global. Ensuite, l'importance de l'Union européenne sur les marchés mondiaux implique que l'UE doive réduire ses subventions à l'exportation, ce qui diminuera le volume des exportations et en fera remonter le prix, Enfin, l'accroissement prévisible de la demande globale européenne en produits laitiers devrait conduire G une réduction des subventions de toute sorte. La PAC est done sur la bonne voie en matière laitière. Mais pour réduire les distorsions, il faut le plus vite possible supprimer les subventions et conserver les quotas laitiers. Reform der GAP im Milchsektor: Abschaffung der Exportsubventionen und Beibehaltung der Milchquoten Die Reform der Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik vom Juni 2003 führt zu erheblichen Politikänderungen. Im Milchsektor ist das Ziel, die Preisverzerrungen zwischen der EU und den Weltmärkten für Milchprodukte durch eine sukzessive Reduzierung der Milchinterventionspreise zu verringern. Das Milchquotensystem bleibt jedoch weiter bestehen und sukzessive Erhöhungen der Milchquoten sind geplant. Es ergibt sich die Frage, ob die Reform bei den vorhandenen drei Charakteristika im EU Milchsektor in die richtige Richtung geht. Erstens bedeuten das gegebene preisunelastische Angebot von Milch (wegen der Quotierung) und die Nachfrage im Inland, dass die Preisverzerrung sich vomehmlich auf die Verteilung der ökonomischen Rente zwischen Konsumenten und Produzenten auswirkt, nicht aber zu bedeutenden Wohlfahrtsverlusten führt. Zweitens fuhrt die Abschaffung aller Exporterstattungen für Milch und Milchprodukte dazu, dass die EU Exporte sinken und damit wegen der EU als relative großes Land die Weltmarktpreise für Milch steigen werden. Drittens begünstigt die vorausgesagte Zunahme in der aggregierten Milchnachfrage in der EU eine Reduzierung aller Subventionen. Die GAP entwickelt sich im Milchsektor in die richtige Richtung. Es sollten aber alle Subventionen so schnell wie möglich abgebaut und die Milchquote sollte aufrechterhalten werden, um Preisverzerrungen zu reduzieren.     

Melitz Meets Milk: The Impact of Quota Abolition on EU Dairy Export Competitiveness

Previous studies of EU milk quota abolition usually assume perfect competition (PC) in the dairy industry, despite evidence to the contrary. We use a global computable general equilibrium framework with an imperfectly competitive (IC) model variant, which offers insights into structural change (i.e. scale of output, firm entry/exit) and varietal diversity in the dairy industry. A heterogeneous‐firm Melitz extension enriches our analysis by endogenising the decision‐making process of domestic firms when exporting (or not) to specific foreign markets. The results from a PC CGE model variant are found to be consistent with respected market outlooks and official data. Furthermore, PC and IC variants generate broadly similar trends – a result corroborated in a previous study of Italian dairy firms. Our IC model prediction of a ‘shakeout’ among EU dairy firms is tentatively supported by actual observations. Finally, as an industry characterised by significant product innovation, increased extra‐EU export orientation by remaining dairy firms increases varietal choice, which further boosts EU dairy exports compared with the PC model variant.     

Structural Change and Policy Reform in the UK Dairy Sector

Estimation of a cost function for a representative sample of UK dairy producers allows future re‐structuring of the industry to be simulated using a model which incorporates producers' differential costs and milk prices. Consideration is also given to reductions in producer prices and to the introduction of an A/B quota system. The results indicate that, despite the history of quota trading in the UK, there is considerable scope for further restructuring in the industry to take advantage of differential incentives between producers. It is also projected that UK milk supply would increase if quota restrictions were removed.     

Non‐Reciprocal Trade Preferences and the Role of Compliance Costs in the Agricultural Sector: Exports to the EU

We investigate whether non‐reciprocal preferential regimes granted by the European Union have an impact on agricultural export flows from beneficiary countries while accounting for the costs of compliance that may prevent exporters from taking full advantage of potential benefits. Compliance costs are heterogeneous and difficult to measure. We proxy their influence and specify a model that allows for a different preferential margin impact according to the proxy costs. Adopting the gravity framework and using a sample of 554 lines of agricultural products for 131 developing countries in 2002, we find that the costs of compliance play a role in making the schemes work: the lower the costs, the greater the impact of the preferential margins. Moreover, the estimated margin effect differs between different regimes.     

Computerized Delphi: An Application to Quota Value Determination in the Quebec Dairy Industry

In an effort to develop a substitute for the consensus panel, a Delphi experiment was conducted based on five simulated benchmark dairy farms in Quebec and communicated to an expert farmer panel by means of a microcomputer model. Farmers were asked to make decisions about quota purchase or sale at alternative quota prices given the detailed data base in the computer model. The results in terms of the convergence analysis, analysis of variance, estimation of fluid quota demand, supply and the equilibrium price are realistic. The method appears to be free from the danger of possible manipulation by individual panelists and hence a good way of generating unbiased information.
Pour essayer de développer un substitut pour le panneau à majorité simple, une expérience "Delphi" a été conduite à partir des données fournies par une simulation de cinq fermes laitierès typiques et communiquée à un panneau agricole au moyen d'un modéle micro-ordinateur. On a demandé aux fermiers de faire des décisions sur l'achat ou la vente d'un contingent à des prix alternatifs pour le contingent étant donnée la base detaillée des données contenue dans le modèle d'ordinateur. Les résultats quant à l'analyse par convergence, l'analyse des variations, l'évaluation de la demande des contingents de fluide, l'offre et l'équilibre des prix sont réalistes. La méthode semble être libre du danger de manipulation possible par un individu dans les panneaux et en conséquence est un bon moyen de produire de l'information objective.     

Herd Growth,Farm Organisation and Subsidies in the Dairy Sector of Russia and Kazakhstan

Initially taken as a template for farm restructuring after the demise of collective agriculture, the ‘Western family farm model’ has taken root in the former Soviet countries only belatedly and incompletely. We examine dairy structures in Russia and Kazakhstan and analyse the drivers of recent herd growth. We are specifically interested in the role of farm management and organisation, vertical integration, and the role of policy. Regression analysis based on a sample of 180 randomly selected commercial dairy farms, using an innovative simultaneous equation framework, shows that better herd management and access to milk marketing contracts were more effective in stimulating herd growth than current subsidy payments. We do not find evidence that milking plants belonging to corporate entities or even supra‐regional agroholdings grow more substantially than medium‐sized individual farms. Twenty‐five years after the end of central planning, structural change among commercial dairy farms in Russia and Kazakhstan appears similar in many ways to the patterns observed in the West more recently: smaller farms catch up in terms of herd growth and classical family‐run operations coexist with or even emulate vertically integrated agribusinesses based on hired labour. In moving toward this ‘new normal’ of farming structures, commercial dairy farms in Russia may even be a few steps ahead of their Western counterparts. At the same time, the still sizeable but stagnating group of subsistence producers in rural households finds no equivalent in the West.     

Sanitary and Technical Regulations: Issues for Trade Liberalization in the Dairy Sector1

Sanitary and technical regulations can impede trade liberalization in dairy products. The World Trade Organization tackle regulatory trade barriers mainly through the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) and the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) agreements. The SPS and TBT agreements are presented, focusing on those provisions that are relevant for the dairy sector. Arbitration of recent SPS disputes clarified the right of a country to set a particular level of protection, as well as the role of international standards. Building on the recent jurisprudence of the disputes settled under the World Trade Organization, the practical scope of the SPS and TBT agreements is explained. Empirical consequences for trade in the dairy sector are presented on the basis of three examples, the Bst issue, the controversy on mandatory pasteurization of cheese and the definition and labeling of yogurts. Les règlementations nationales sur le plan sanitaire ou technique peuvent créer des obstacles aux échanges. L'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce (OMC) traite ces problémes principalement à trovers l'Accord Sanitaire et phytosanitaire (SPS) et celui sur les Obstacles techniques aux échanges (OTE). Ces accords et leurs effets possibles sur le secteur laitier sont présentés. L'arbitrage des différends récents par l'OMC dans le domaine sanitaire et phytosanitaire a claifié le droit d'un pays àétablir son propre niveau de protection des consommateurs et a précisé la portée des normes internationales. En s'appuyant sur la jurisprudence récente, la portée pratique des accords SPS et OTE est expliquée. Les conséquences pratiques pour le commerce international des produits laitiers sont présentées sur la base de trois exemple, la Bst, la controverse sur la pasteurisation des fromages, et la définition et l'étiquetage des yaourts.     

Policy Reform in the European Union Dairy Sector: Effects on Markets and Welfare

This paper analyzes the impacts of policy reforms in the EU dairy sector. It is shown that the imple-mentation of GATT agreements leads to a 4% decrease in the milk price. Prices of SMP and WMP decrease more than butter and cheese prices. EU welfare increases marginally, but distributive effects are large. The increase in quotas decided by the Berlin Agreement will cause a dramatic cut in the milk price (?10% to ?15% depending on how EU demand will increase in the future). Moreover, because of the constraints on subsidized exports, the implicit price of protein will decrease much more than the price of fat. Finally, if demand expands sufficiently, then compensatory payments (including national envelopes) will cover about 90% of the loss in producer surplus due to the milk price cut. We also inves-tigate the impact of a two-tiered quota system and show that its impacts are similar to those generated by the implementation of GATT agreements. On étudie les effets de différents scénarios de réforme de la politique laitiére européenne. La mise en oeuvre des accords du GATT implique une réduction du prix du lait de 4%. De plus, les baisses de prix des produits transformés sont plus importantes pour les poudres de lait que pour le beurre ou le fro-mage. L'impact des accords sur le bien-ětre est positif mais faible. Par contre les effets redistributifs sont importants. L'augmentation des quotas décidée lors de l'accord de Berlin entra?nera une baisse importante du prix du lait européen, de l'ordre de 10 %à 15 % selon l'évolution de la consommation intérieure. En raison des contraintes d'exportations qui portent principalement sur les produits pro-téiques, le prix implicite de la protéine de lait diminue beaucoup plus que le prix implicite de la matiére grasse laitiére. Par ailleurs, on montre que si la demande européenne s'accro?t suffisamment, les paiements compensatoires prévus couvriront environ 90 % des pertes de revenus des producteurs liées à la baisse du prix du lait. Enfin, on montre que les effets d'un scénario de double prix double quota sont proches de ceux provoqués par la mise en application des accords du GATT.     

Farmer Participation,Processing, and the Rise of Dairy Production in Greater Beijing,P. R. China

With rapid income growth, dairy production and consumption in China have increased significantly. The emergence of the dairy sector provides opportunities for farmers to participate in a high-value, potentially more lucrative enterprise. The overall goal of this paper is to analyze the major determinants of farmer participation in dairy production. Our main questions include whether or not the pace of the emergence of the dairy processing industry has affected the ability of farmers (especially small and relatively poor ones) to participate in dairy production; and whether or not it has limited the expansion of their herd size. Based on household, village, and processor surveys conducted in the Greater Beijing region, our analysis indicates that the location of dairy processing firms is one key factor that determines the participation of farmers in dairy production. Although other factors affect participation and herd size, including road access and the ability to find employment off the farm (which affects the opportunity cost of household members), the proximity to a dairy processor is shown to be one of the major factors that has encouraged the growth of dairy production for a given farmer in a specific region during the past decade. The results also show that poor, less educated farmers with relatively less access to land are not excluded from the expansion of the Greater Beijing dairy market. La production laitière et la consommation ont augmenté considérablement en Chine, en raison de la croissance rapide du revenu. Pour les producteurs, la croissance du secteur laitier offre des occasions de se lancer dans des activités à forte valeur, potentiellement plus lucratives. L’objectif global du présent article consiste à analyser les principaux déterminants de la participation des producteurs à la production laitière. Nous nous sommes alors posé deux questions. Le rythme d’émergence de l’industrie de la transformation de produits laitiers influence-t-il ou non la capacité des producteurs (en particulier les petits producteurs de condition modeste) à se lancer dans la production laitière? Le rythme d’émergence de cette industrie limite-t-il ou non l’expansion de la taille de leurs troupeaux? Une analyse des enquêtes menées auprès des ménages, des villages et des transformateurs dans l’agglomération pékinoise a révélé que le lieu où se trouvent les entreprises de transformation de produits laitiers est l’un des principaux facteurs qui déterminent la participation des producteurs à la production laitière. Bien que d’autres facteurs influencent la participation des producteurs et la taille des troupeaux, notamment l’accès routier et la capacitéà trouver un emploi à l’extérieur de la ferme (qui influence le coût d’opportunité/d’option des membres du ménage), la proximité d’une usine de transformation serait l’un des principaux facteurs qui ont encouragé la croissance de la production laitière, pour un producteur donné dans une région en particulier, au cours des dix dernières années. Les résultats ont également indiqué que les producteurs de condition modeste, moins instruits et ayant un accès restreint à des terres ne sont pas exclus de l’expansion du marché laitier dans l’agglomération pékinoise.     

New Futures Markets in Agricultural Production Rights: Possibilities and Constraints for the British and Dutch Milk Quota Markets

Farms are increasingly being affected by policies that involve production rights. Because of fluctuations in the prices of these rights in the spot market, farmers face a price risk. Establishing a futures market might enable them to hedge against this price risk. Rights futures have some features that differ from those of traditional commodity futures. This makes them an effective and efficient tool for managing price risk. The implications of these findings will be illustrated for milk quotas in the United Kingdom and The Netherlands. Prior conditions which might make a futures market for milk quotas successful in both countries will be deduced.     

Abolition of Raw Milk Quota in the European Union: A CGE Analysis at the Member Country Level

This paper discusses a generic approach to implementing production quotas in an applied general equilibrium framework. The quota rent is interpreted as additional primary factor payments. We analyse the abolition of the raw milk quota and the elimination of export subsidies for dairy products in the European Union at a member country level. The raw milk output increases in Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Spain, while it declines in Germany, Greece, Portugal and Sweden. The EU‐wide effect for raw milk production is an output increase of 3% and a price decline of 22%. To assess the robustness of the critical assumption about the raw milk quota rent we apply Arndt and Pearson's Systematic Sensitivity Analysis.     

Partial Market Liberalization and the Efficiency of Policy Reform: The Case of the European Dairy Sector

This article analyzes the efficiency of partial market liberalization and policy reform with an application to the European dairy sector. In a second best world, partial moves toward market liberalization are not always efficiency improving. We develop a general equilibrium model to investigate the efficiency implications of discrete changes in government policy. The analysis covers price and quantity instruments used in both domestic and trade policy. We derive simple conditions under which partial market liberalization is efficiency improving. We apply the approach to agricultural policy reform in the European dairy sector and identify market liberalization scenarios that are "not" efficiency improving.