Using z-scores to evaluate accounting students: a test of Weinstein’s suggestion

Based on analysis using hypothetical data, Weinstein suggested that z-scores should be used in the determination of accounting students’ grades. The computation of z-scores mitigates the subjectivity caused by differences in the variances of the individual components that make up the total points for the course. We tested Weinstein’s suggestion using actual data to determine the degree to which subjectivity resulting from different variances influenced grades based on a total point distribution. The effect on actual final letter grades assigned was determined by comparing the rankings in grade distributions based on total points versus rankings based on z-scores. Findings show minimal overall effects on letter grade differences between total point and z-score-based methods. Because the results using actual data in our study found smaller differences than suggested by Weinstein’s hypothetical data, our findings do not indicate a compelling need to use a z-score standardization method in determining students’ grades. However, since using z-scores is easy and final grade rankings differed in some cases, instructors might find it useful to compute z-scores in addition to their normal grading procedures.     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book reviewed in this article: AggregatJJ Theory and Policy Income and Wealth. By Edward Ames . Controlling Monetary Aggregates: Proceedings of the Monetary Conference Held on Nantucket Island, June 8–10, 1969. Sponsored by the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston Essays on Interest Rates, Volume I. Edited by Jack M. Guttentag and Phillip Cagan Business Finance and InvestmentsAn Introduction to Risk and Return from Common Stocks. BY Richard A. Brealey . Capital Allocation Theory: The Study of Investment Decisions. By Gerald A. Fleischer . Quantitative Analysis of Financial Decisions. By James C. T. Mao . Microeconomics and Decision Models of the Firm. By Thomas H. Naylor and John M. Vernon . Financial Institutions and MarketsModern Techniques in Bank Management. Edited by Douglas V. Austin and Gene S. Booker . The Price of Money, 1946 to 1969: An Analytical Study of United States and Foreign Interest Rates. By Sidney Homer and Richard I. Johannesen . Innovations in Bank Management: Selected Readings. Edited by Paul F. Jessup . The Federal Home Loan Bank Board. By Thomas B. Marvell . Municipal Bond Finance and Administration: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Tax Exempt Securities. By Alan Rabinowitz . Readings in Financial Markets and Institutions. Edited by J. Van Fenstermaker . International FinanceResource Flows to Less Developed Countries. By Clive S. Gray . A Structural Model of the U.S. Balance of Payments. By Martin F. J. Prachowny . Amsterdam and London: North-Holland, 1969. Pp. 176. $9.50. Readings in International Financial Management. Edited by Arthur I. Stonehill . International Financial Management. By David B. Zenoff and Jack Zwick Public FinanceTaxes and Politics: A Study of Illinois Public Finance. By Glenn W. Fisher . The Taxation of Income from Capital. Edited by Arnold C. Harberger and Martin J. Bailey . Commonwealth-State Financial Relations in Australia. By James A. Maxwell . Tax Impacts on Compensation. Sponsored by Tax Institute of America     

The Costs and Benefits of Regulating the Market for Corporate Insolvency Practitioner Remuneration

The release by the Australian Treasury on Friday, 7 November 2014 of the Insolvency Law Reform Bill (ILRB) 2014 throws the spotlight once again on corporate insolvency law reform in Australia. Significantly, the ILRB 2014 identifies amongst its purposes two objectives with respect to Corporate Insolvency Practitioner (CIP) remuneration reform. Namely, to promote market competition on price and quality and improve the overall confidence in the professionalism and competence of insolvency practitioners. This paper considers whether the proposed CIP remuneration reforms outlined in the ILRB 2014 will effectively achieve these objectives. Where it is considered that reforms are misdirected, further changes, informed by UK insolvency reform proposals, are considered.     

Scaling and universality in economics: empirical results and theoretical interpretation

H Eugene Stanley and Vasiliki Plerou comment on the paper by Blake LeBaron, on page 621 of this issue, by examining the degree to which the twin concepts of scaling and universality apply to economic systems as compared with other physical systems comprising a large number of interconnected and interacting components.     

Maximal submarkets that replicate any option

In this article we study the replication of options in security markets X with a finite number of states. Specifically, we study the existence of maximal submarkets (subspaces) Y of X so that any option written on the elements of Y is replicated by a marketed asset x of X. So inside these subspaces the pricing problem is simple because any option is priced by the replicating portfolio. Using the theory of lattice-subspaces and positive bases developed by Polyrakis (Trans Am Math Soc 348:2793–2810, 1996; 351:4183–4203, 1999), we identify the set of all maximal replicated subspaces. In particular, for any maximal replicated subspace we determine a positive basis of the subspace. Moreover we show that the union of all maximal replicated subspaces is the set of all marketed securities x ? X{x\in X} so that any option written on x is replicated. So we determine also the set of securities with replicated options.     

GAAP,GFS and AASB 1049: perceptions of public sector stakeholders

Efforts by Australian standard‐setters to harmonise public sector financial reporting resulted in AASB 1049, which sought to bridge the divide between generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP)‐based and government finance statistics (GFS)‐based financial statements. However, whether AASB 1049 has resulted in information that is considered appropriate for the public sector has not been examined. We explore this issue by comparing the requirements of AASB 1049 with the responses from a survey of public sector stakeholders on the appropriate accounting treatment and presentation of selected financial items. The analysis suggests consensus with AASB 1049 on presentation issues but less consensus on accounting treatments.     

India’s strategic future: 2025

Based on the geopolitical developments in India’s neighbouring countries and India’s response to them, this paper depicts four scenarios—Storms and Fires, Rainbow in the Sky, Light and Shadows and Across Space. Each scenario explores a set of possible events and the consequences triggered by it. While Storms and Fires is based on the rise of a sharp nationalist Indian sentiment in the face of heightened security tensions in the region, Across Space outlines the future of India’s worldview shaped by the present government’s policy of US primacy. Light and Shadows is based on differential policy towards neighbours—conflict with Pakistan and cooperation with other neighbours. This scenario is predicated on the supremacy of economic objectives whereas Rainbow in the Sky is based on the regional cooperation as the primary guiding force of the Indian foreign policy. Though major geopolitical events in its neighbourhood will impact the immediate future of India, India’s response and internal strengths and weaknesses will determine its long-term future. It is therefore essential for the country to develop a well considered trajectory of its strategic options for the next 25 years.     

On a multivariate Markov chain model for credit risk measurement

In this paper, we use credibility theory to estimate credit transition matrices in a multivariate Markov chain model for credit rating. A transition matrix is estimated by a linear combination of the prior estimate of the transition matrix and the empirical transition matrix. These estimates can be easily computed by solving a set of linear programming (LP) problems. The estimation procedure can be implemented easily on Excel spreadsheets without requiring much computational effort and time. The number of parameters is O(s² m² ), where s is the dimension of the categorical time series for credit ratings and m is the number of possible credit ratings for a security. Numerical evaluations of credit risk measures based on our model are presented.     

Relationships among budgetary leadership behavior, managerial budgeting games, and budgetary attitudes: Evidence from Taiwanese corporations

In this paper, we examine the relationship among leadership behavior (contingent reward vs. contingent punishment), managerial budgeting games (devious games vs. economic games), and attitudes towards the budgetary process. Relationships were tested using a structural equation model that was estimated on the basis of questionnaire data from 216 Taiwanese managers. The majority of respondents were accounting/finance managers employed by manufacturing firms. Results reveal that contingent-reward leadership behavior has a direct and positive effect on attitudes toward the budgetary process, and an indirect effect through economic games. On the other hand, we find evidence that contingent-punishment leadership behavior has only an indirect and negative effect on attitudes toward the budgetary process through devious games, especially for non-accounting/finance managers. Managers who play economic games tend to have positive attitudes towards the budgetary process, while those who play devious games do not. The findings should be useful to management in understanding what effective leadership behavior is in the budget-preparation process in Taiwan, and assessing how budgeting games are likely to be adopted by Taiwanese managers.     

On VIX futures in the rough Bergomi model

The rough Bergomi model introduced by Bayer et al. [Quant. Finance, 2015, 1–18] has been outperforming conventional Markovian stochastic volatility models by reproducing implied volatility smiles in a very realistic manner, in particular for short maturities. We investigate here the dynamics of the VIX and the forward variance curve generated by this model, and develop efficient pricing algorithms for VIX futures and options. We further analyse the validity of the rough Bergomi model to jointly describe the VIX and the SPX, and present a joint calibration algorithm based on the hybrid scheme by Bennedsen et al. [Finance Stoch., forthcoming].     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book reviewed in this article: Issues in Monetary Economics, (Proceedings of the 1972 Money Study Group Conference). H. G. Johnson and A. R. Nobay Monetary Economics. By D. G. Pierce and D. M. Shaw The Bankers. By Martin Mayer Security Analysis and Portfolio Management. By Donald E. Fischer and Ronald J. Jordon Financial Ratios and Investment Results By Donald M. Peterson The Strategy of Cash. By S. D. Slater Finance as a Dynamic Process. By Edwin J. Elton and Martin J. Gruber Property Taxation and the Finance of Education. Edited by Richard W. Lindholm Real Estate and Urban Land Analysis. Edited by James R. Cooper and Karl L. Gundermann Methods and Techniques of Business Forecasting. Edited by William F. Butler , Robert A. Kavesh , and Robert B. Platt The Effect of Social Security on Personal Saving. By Alicia Haydock Munnell     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book reviewed in this article: Aggregate Theory and Policy: The Theory and Empirical Analysis of Production, Studies in Income and Wealth, Volume 31. Edited by Murray Brown . Europe's Postwar Growth. by Charles P. Kindleberger . Information, Expectations, and Inventory Fluctuation, NBER Studies in Business Cycles Number 16. By Ruth Mack . The Wage-Price Guideposts. By John Sheahan . Essays on the Theory of Optimal Economic Growth. Edited by Karl Shell . Depreciation Policies and Resultant Problems. By William T. Hogan , S.J. Survey of Investments. By Donald E. Vaughn . Financial Institutions and Markets: The Future of Small Banks: An Analysis of Their Ability to Compete with Large Banks. By Ernest Kohn . The Wealth of the Nation. By Jack Revell . International Finance: Financing and Problems of Development Banking. By J. T. Dock Houk . Maintaining and Restoring Balance in International Payments. By William Fellner , Fritz Machlup , Robert Triffin , and Eleven Others. The Teaching of Development Economics. Edited by Kurt Martin and John Knapp . Public Finance: Metropolitan America: Fiscal Patterns and Governmental Systems. By Alan K. Campbell and Seymour Sacks . Property Taxation, U.S.A. Edited by Richard W. Lindholm . The Property Tax: Problems and Potentials. A Symposium. Economic Evaluation of Urban Renewal. By Jerome Rothenberg     

Spillover of corporate governance standards in cross-border mergers and acquisitions

In cross-border acquisitions, the differences between the bidder and target corporate governance (measured by newly constructed indices capturing shareholder, minority shareholder, and creditor protection) have an important impact on the takeover returns. Our country-level corporate governance indices capture the changes in the quality of the national corporate governance regulations over the past 15 years. When the bidder is from a country with a strong shareholder orientation (relative to the target), part of the total synergy value of the takeover may result from the improvement in the governance of the target assets. In full takeovers, the corporate governance regulation of the bidder is imposed on the target (the positive spillover by law hypothesis). In partial takeovers, the improvement in the target corporate governance may occur on voluntary basis (the spillover by control hypothesis). Our empirical analysis corroborates both spillover effects. In contrast, when the bidder is from a country with poorer shareholder protection, the negative spillover by law hypothesis states that the anticipated takeover gains will be lower as the poorer corporate governance regime of the bidder will be imposed on the target. The alternative bootstrapping hypothesis argues that poor-governance bidders voluntarily bootstrap to the better-governance regime of the target. We do find support for the bootstrapping effect.     

Swap variance hedging and efficiency: The role of high moments

In this article, we propose a new theoretical approach for developing hedging strategies based on swap variance (SwV). SwV is a generalized risk measure equivalent to a polynomial combination of all moments of a return distribution. Using the S&P 500 index and West Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude oil spot and futures price data, as well as simulations by varying the distribution of asset returns, we investigate the dynamic differences between hedge ratios and portfolio performances based on SwV (with high moments) and variance (without high moments). We find that, on average, the minimizing-SwV hedging suggests more short futures contracts than minimizing-variance hedging; however, when market conditions deteriorate, the minimizing-SwV hedging suggests fewer short positions in futures. The superior posthedge performances of the mean-SwV hedged portfolios over the mean-variance hedged portfolios in highly volatile or extremely calm markets confirm the efficiency of the mean-SwV hedging strategy.     

Contractual corporate governance

Companies have the choice to deviate from their national corporate governance standards by opting into another system. They can do so via contractual devices – such as cross-border mergers and acquisitions, (re)incorporations, and cross-listings – which enable them to choose their preferred level of investor protection and regulation. This paper reviews these three main contractual governance devices, their effect on value, and whether their adoption by firms induces a race to the bottom or a race to the top. Indeed, firms may opt for less shareholder-orientation or investor protection (shareholder-expropriation hypothesis) rather than for more stringent rules that require firms to focus on shareholder value (bonding hypothesis).     

Book Reviews

The Theory of Money. By JURG NIEHANS. Estimation Risk and Optimal Portfolio Choice. By VIJAY S. BAWA, STEPHEN J. BROWN, and ROGER W. KLEIN. Amsterdam Basic Financial Management. By JOHN D. MARTIN, J. WILLIAM PETTY, ARTHUR J. KEOWN, and DAVID F. SCOTT, Jr. Finance. By MARVIN RAY and DAVID L. SCOTT. Problems in Public Utility Economics and Regulation. Edited by MICHAEL A. CREW. Public Budgeting in America. By THOMAS D. LYNCH. Money Hard and Soft on the International Currency Markets. By BRENDAN BROWN. Foreword by Robert Z. Aliber.     

Statistical approximation of plane convex sets

Summary

Given a convex set F in the plane with a sufficiently smooth boundary we try to approximate it by polygons in the following way. Using some specified sampling procedure we pick out n points on the boundary. Through each such point we draw the tangent. Consider the polygon F*_n spanned by all these tangents. If n is large we would expect F*_n to be close to F. Measuring the deviation by the area of F*_n — F we will derive an asymptotic expression for this area when n becomes large. This expression can be used to choose the optimum sampling procedure in the sense of smallest asymptotic deviation.

The problem arose from a problem of statistical approximation in propositional calculus, see section 1.     

Japanese Corporate Groupings (Keiretsu) and the Characteristics of Analysts' Forecasts

This study examines differences in the characteristics of analysts' forecasts of earnings for keiretsu and non-keiretsu firms in Japan. Japanese industrial organization is characterized by enterprise groupings, keiretsu, composed of firms in different industries, but interrelated through cross-holdings of ownership. The strong interrelations of the Japanese keiretsu have been shown to increase the monitoring of managerial performance. An alternative view of keiretsu stewardship suggests the exclusionary environment within a keiretsu creates an information monopoly, resulting in greater information asymmetry between inside and outside constituents. These two views provide opposing predictions on how keiretsu groupings potentially affect the characteristics of earnings forecasts made by analysts: increased monitoring will improve the forecast characteristics of earnings, while the opposite is true under an information monopoly.Our results suggest that forecast accuracy (dispersion) is higher (lower) for keiretsu firms than non-keiretsu firms, supporting a monitoring role by keiretsu. The results also show that keiretsu firms' forecast characteristics are related to the strength of the keiretsu relationship, providing further evidence that it is indeed the keiretsu relationship that increases the monitoring of management, which ultimately improves the accuracy and dispersion of analysts' forecast.     

On asymptotic properties of Bonus–Malus systems based on the number and on the size of the claims

A general framework for a Bonus–Malus system (BMS) based on the number and the size of the claims is presented, the set of the bonus classes being an interval [a,?b], say 0<a<1<b. The BMS is interpreted as a general Markov chain with state space [a,?b]. It turns out that, under certain assumptions, the Markov chain possesses an invariant limit distribution to which it converges with a geometric rate. We show how the invariant distribution can be evaluated by means of simulation. We also deal with the best possible convergence rate and show how it can be presented by means of the spectral theory of Banach spaces.     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book reviewed in this article: American Monetary Policy, 1928–1941. By Lester V. Chandler . Essays on Interest Rates, Volume II. Edited by Jack M. Guttentag . The Postwar Quality of State and Local Debt. By George H. Hempel . Money and Monetary Policy in Communist China. By Katharine Huang Hsiao . The Cyclical Timing of Consumer Credit, 1920–67. By Philip A. Klein . Institutional Holdings of Common Stock 1900–2000 (Michigan Business Studies, Volume XVIII, Number 3). By Robert M. Soldofsky . The International Corporation: A Symposium. Edited by Charles P. Kindleberger . Studies in International Economics (Monash Conference Papers). Edited by I. A. Mc Dougall and R. H. Snape . External Financing for Latin American Development. By the General Secretariat of the Organization of American States . Money, Trade and International Relations. By Lord Robbins . American Financing of World War I. By Charles Gilbert . Budget Innovation in the States. By Allen Schick .