Recall of Information from Political Advertising

Abstract

Televised political commercials have frequently been criticized for stressing idealized image characteristics of the candidates rather than issues. Content analyses of political advertising, however, have shown that these commercials generally contain both image and issue material. Given both types of content are present in political ads, this study was designed to determine what people recall from these ads in a natural environment. A telephone study during the last week of a gubernatorial election revealed that the amount of free recall exhibited was greater for information from a preferred candidate's commercials than from his opponent's. However, one-third of the respondents were unable to recall anything from either candidates' political commercials. Recall was more highly related to attitude variables than most demographic variables or total television exposure.     

TV advertising of OTC medicines and its effects on child viewers

The influence of over-the-counter (OTC) medicine commercials on children's choices concerning use of OTC medicines was investigated in two experiments. In the first, 115 third and fourth graders were exposed to commercials for six different OTC medicines or commercials for other products. They were then asked to recommend either a medicine or nonmedicine remedy for a child and an adult with various illnesses and/or problems. The OTC medicine commercials appeared to influence children's recommendations only with respect to use of sleeping pills. In the second experiment 234 third and fourth graders were exposed to either fever and cold medicine commercials, all of which were directed toward the child viewer, or nondrug commercials. Only the fever medicine commercials appeared to influence the children. It was concluded that OTC medicine commercials do not, in general, influence children's choices concerning use of those medicines. Possible exceptions to this general case are noted.     

Hong Kong children's understanding of television advertising

This study examines Chinese children's understanding and comprehension of television advertising. A quota sample of 448 children made up of 32 girls and 32 boys from kindergartens and grades 1-6, were personally interviewed in May 1998. The results indicated that children in grade 2 (aged 7-8 years) were beginning to understand what advertising was and were aware of the persuasive intention of television advertising. Over one-third of older children from grade 4 understood that television stations carried advertising for money. Like children in the West, the main reason for liking and disliking commercials depended on their entertainment element. An understanding of television advertising, recall of brands from slogans and comprehension of advertising content were consistently related to the cognitive development of children. Brand recognition from liked and disliked commercials was strong. Comprehension of the key messages of advertising content varied greatly by children's cognitive development and the style of presentation. Ethical issues and public opinions of Hong Kong consumers regarding advertising to children were discussed.     

Television advertising and childrens' attitudes toward proprietary medicine

The effect of exposure to television drug advertising on children's attitudes toward proprietary medicines and medicine use was investigated in two experiments. The first experiment presented the commercials in a realistic program context fashion. The second experiment presented the commercials in a more direct and controlled manner. Using drug questionnaires, the subjects were assessed for their attitudes regarding the use of proprietary drugs. The results of both studies indicated that exposure to drug advertising had little influence on children's attitudes. Furthermore, children preferred not to watch drug commercials in comparison to a TV program or other types of commercials.     

How Chinese Children's Commercials Differ from Those of the United States: A Content Analysis

Abstract

A content analysis was conducted of children's television commercials from China and the United States that were recorded over a period of eighteen months. We describe how the content of the two sets of commercials differs and the underlying reasons for the differences, including cultural, economic, and social conditions. The results suggest that, for the most part, Chinese children's commercials reflect China's traditional cultural values and its social and economic development level. However, the analysis was able to detect a shifting in power in Chinese society from the elderly to the young, resulting mainly from its one-child policy implemented during the past two decades. We also found some evidence of Western values creeping into Chinese children's commercials. Limitations are noted, and suggestions are offered for additional research that will corroborate these findings.     

Television food ads aimed at children in South-Eastern Europe: Cultural outlook and implications

South-East Europe (SEE) has the highest obesity rates and the most substantial consumption of television programs among young people compared to other parts of the continent. However, studies on this subject are notably absent from the existing body of literature. This research investigates differences in ad recall and preferences related to the healthiness of featured products and the alignment of advertising settings with specific cultural dimensions of SEE's ethos. The study utilizes two multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks: the social cognitive theory and the two-dimensional Minkov-Hofstede model of culture, and it employs a mixed-methods approach. Results from a survey conducted with children and a content analysis of TV ads from the region reveal that commercials promoting low-nutrition foods are more persuasive than those featuring healthy products. Consistent with the collectivist nature of SEE's culture, ads using group settings are predominantly recalled. Contrarily, in opposition to prior knowledge, the use of monumentalistic (vs. flexibility) attributes in commercials does not enhance the memory retrieval of ads. Children's ad preferences are significantly influenced by their self-concept. The implications of these findings for various stakeholders are discussed.     

Contextual Priming Effects of Television Programs on Commercials: The Moderating Effects of Age

This study investigated whether age and its associated implicit memory deficits influences responses to contextual television advertising. Prior exposure to the advertised product or brand during a program should improve recall and brand attitude for contextual commercials. The results of a lab experiment, with participants ranging in age from 19 to 78, revealed that unbranded product appearances significantly improved recall, compared to normal unprimed commercials, but only for younger consumers. Branded product appearances did not significantly improve recall, compared to unbranded appearances. Contextual commercials had no positive effects on brand attitude. However, a competitor-brand appearance had a negative effect on brand attitude, for both older and younger consumers. Implications of these results, and their limitations, are discussed.     

The Effects Of Program Involvement On Commercial Exposure And Recall In A Naturalistic Setting

Although program involvement is often found to be an important determinant of commercial recall, studies have produced mixed results. The authors contend that inconsistent findings are, in large part, a result of the degree to which respondents are free to determine their exposure to commercials. It is hypothesized that in studies where exposure is not forced, program involvement has a positive effect on commercial recall. This proposition was examined during the broadcast of four matches of the 2000 European Soccer Championship (N = 344). Results show that viewers who saw a highly involving match recalled commercials significantly better than those who saw matches that scored lower on program involvement. This effect was, in large part, mediated by respondents' exposure to the commercials.     

Media portrayal of foods during Saturday morning television programming and in children's magazines

Eating habits are established in childhood and media portrayal of foods may affect food choices of children. To determine how foods are portrayed by the media, the contents of Saturday morning television programmes and commercials and three children's magazines were analysed. Foods portrayed during Saturday morning television programmes and commercials and in children's magazines were categorized as normal ‘food use’ (97.1% and 86.0%, respectively). Foods on television (91.3%) and in magazines (77.4%) were portrayed in a positive context. Foods were more often portrayed neutrally in magazines (206%) than on television (64%). The number of fruits and vegetables mentioned or shown on television did not statistically differ from the number of breads or cereals (P ≥ 0–05). In contrast, when combined as one group. fruits and vegetables that were included in magazines appeared more often than bread or cereals (P ≤ 0.05). Eighty per cent of all foods mentioned/shown on Saturday morning television were part of commercials, whereas only 12% of all foods in magazines were located in advertisements. Results indicate that opportunities exist in print and electronic media to convey positive nutritional messages about foods to children.     

Preston,Ivan L., The Tangled Web They Weave: Truth,Falsity, & Advertisers,Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994

Abstract

In an experiment, children in three grade levels (second, fourth, and sixth) viewed four advertisements. The children were shown advertisements with either metaphors in both pictorial and verbal form or a literal equivalent. The sixth graders interpreted more metaphors correctly than the fourth and second graders. In terms of recall of advertised content, the sixth and fourth graders recalled brand names, products, and additional copy better than the second graders. Within each grade level, metaphors did not enhance children's recall of advertised content or perceptions of the understandability of the advertisements and liking of the advertised products. The authors speculate that metaphors are most likely to enhance recall under conditions in which the metaphor serves as a direct representation linking the metaphor to the advertised product. Their findings suggest that advertisers should be aware that young readers may have difficulty interpreting metaphors and that metaphors may not be more effective in terms of children's recall and perception of understandability than literal versions of advertisements.     

How coviewing reduces the effectiveness of TV advertising

In the present study – a naturalistic laboratory experiment – coviewing of TV commercials reduced their effectiveness (delayed proven ad recall) from 63%, obtained by single viewers, to 43%, for both coviewers. During coviewing, the ‘mere presence of another’ apparently distracts each coviewer's attention from the screen. The reduction in TV ads' effectiveness due to coviewing is equivalent to the loss from channel-change zapping, which reduces ad recall to 45%. More deleterious but less prevalent modes of digital video recorder-enabled ad avoidance are skip-button zapping, which reduces recall to 35%, and moderately fast zipping ( × 8 fast forward), which reduces ad effectiveness almost entirely, leaving only 6% recall. This study concludes with some practical suggestions for improving the effectiveness of TV commercials seen by a coviewing audience.     

Middle-School Children's Sources and Uses of Money

Despite their growing economic power, children's acquisition and use of money rarely has been investigated in academic research, although it has been a frequent topic in the media. This study (1) describes sources and uses of money children (age 10–15) receive; and (2) investigates the association of children's uses of money with their age, gender, family structure, and sources of money. The sources of money are associated with children's uses of it, but age, gender, and family situation do not relate to the way they use money. Consumer education should focus on the sources of children's money in relation to the way they use it.     

How advertising literacy training affect children's responses to television commercials versus advergames

This study examined children's advertising literacy level for traditional versus embedded advertising formats by comparing their cognitive and affective advertising literacy level for television commercials vs. advergames. The study also explored how cognitive and affective advertising literacy further attenuate advertising effects by investigating the mediation impact of cognitive and affective advertising literacy on the relation between the ad's format and the purchase request. Third, the study investigated how an advertising literacy training session moderates these effects.

The results of this experimental study showed that advergames lead to a higher purchase request rate among children than television commercials. However, only affective but not cognitive advertising literacy mediated the effect of the advertising format on purchase request. In addition, a training session was shown to accelerate children's cognitive (but not their affective) advertising literacy for advergames, but not for television commercials.     

Children's brand symbolism understanding: Links to theory of mind and executive functioning

Against a background of research suggesting that brand symbolism understanding does not develop until 7 to 11 years of age, two studies investigate various aspects of preschool children's brand knowledge. While children's recognition of child‐oriented brands is found to be significantly greater than their recognition of brands that are marketed primarily to teens and adults, these young children do recognize brands. In a second study, children's ability to form mental representations of brands is assessed, along with their understanding of brands as social symbols. Cognitive ability, theory of mind, and executive functioning are assessed as predictors of these brand‐related outcomes. Theory of mind and executive functioning are both significant predictors of the ability to form mental representations of brands. Children's brand symbolism understanding shows a significant link with theory of mind. It is concluded that 3‐ to 5‐year‐olds have emerging knowledge of brands that are relevant in their lives. The impact of individual differences in theory of mind and executive functioning on children's brand knowledge aligns with current theories of child development. Methodological contributions and societal implications are discussed. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A content analysis of television food advertising to children: comparing low and general‐nutrition food

Television food advertisements targeted at children were content analysed. Data were collected on four major children's cable television channels in the United States aired during the hours of 3 p.m. to 7 p.m. over the period of 23 August to 5 September 2012. Based on the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion, the study identified a variety of persuasive appeals with central and peripheral cues in the child‐targeted food commercials. Further, it investigated how the central and peripheral cues in the appeals were differently associated with low‐nutrition and general‐nutrition food commercials. Overall, the findings showed that general‐nutrition food commercials used persuasive appeals with central cues more frequently than low‐nutrition food commercials. Theoretical, practical and regulatory implications are discussed.     

Effects of sex and attitudes toward women on the processing of television commercials

This study examined the effects of sex and attitudes toward women on different cognitive measures that were obtained after ‘liberal’ and ‘nonliberal’ male and female subjects viewed 12 television commercials: 6 commercials depicted ‘traditional’ female roles and 6 were ‘neutral.’ The dependent variables included (1) ratings of the commercials, (2) objections to the commercials, (3) perceived content or interpretation of the commercials, and (4) willingness to buy. The results suggested that liberals had more objections to the stereotypic commercials and that they rated and interpreted some of them more negatively when compared with nonliberals. Liberals were also less willing to buy some of the products after viewing traditional commercials. The findings were discussed with reference to Bem's (1981) gender schema theory.     

The effects of an advertising retrieval cue on young children's memory and brand evaluations

Young children's memory for television advertising is important in order for children to recognize brands in stores and/or to recall the brand name in making a purchase request. Two experiments showed that the use of visual advertising retrieval cue (a green frog as the brand character) improved memory performance and brand evaluations. Study 1 (n = 40) showed promise in the cue's assistance in children's recalling the brand name (cued recall) from the ad memory trace. Study 2 (n = 40) contained multiple exposures to the ad, which resulted in greater free recall and in support for the cue's assistance in better access of the brand name from the ad memory trace (cued recall). Affected ad memory resulted in more favorable brand evaluations and intent to request the brand's purchase. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Minorities in Children's Television Commercials: New,Improved, and Stereotyped

Mass media is one means by which consumers learn how to behave as consumers. Consumers’ beliefs about minorities as consumers are also influenced by mass media, and the impact is likely highest among young children. A content analysis of 813 commercials in children's television programming reveals that while Caucasians continue to be the predominant models in terms of numbers and in the types of roles they play, the numerical representation of minorities, especially Blacks, has improved. However, the study found that minorities are more likely than Caucasians to have minor roles and to be portrayed in certain product categories, settings, and relationships. Societal impacts and implications for minority consumers are discussed.     

Consumer satisfaction with shopping experiences and clothing products in the children's wear market

This study, utilizing a model of the satisfaction process in retail settings, analysed the relationship between problem disconfirmation and satisfaction with (i) shopping for children's clothing and (ii) the quality of children's clothing. In addition, the effect of shopping satisfaction on product satisfaction was also examined. The sample comprised 957 children's wear consumers from one mid-western state. Factor analysis and ordinary least-squares regression were the statistical techniques used to analyse the data. The results indicate that sizing and fit problems are significantly related to satisfaction with the shopping experience. Product attributes related to the lasting ability of a garment, as well as those specific to infants' wear, were significantly related to satisfaction with product quality. Satisfaction with the shopping experience was also found to affect product satisfaction. These results have tangible implications for apparel marketers.     

When New Commercials Do Not Meet Expectations

The present research investigates whether a brand's prior commercials create expectations against which consumers compare its new commercials. Extending the expectation–disconfirmation paradigm, this article proposes that the degree to which consumers’ expectations are disconfirmed affects their attitudes toward a new commercial, which then influence their brand attitudes. Studies 1, 2, and 3 tested these predictions by exploring consumers’ expectations with regard to creativity, humor, and specific ad features (e.g., spokescharacters) in new commercials. The findings support the predictions; both value-laden and value-neutral expectations exert the proposed influences.