Rivers,William L., Wallace Thompson,and Michael J. Nyhan. The Aspen Handbook on the Media, 1977–1979 edition. New York: Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies, 1977. 438 pp

Abstract

Time-compressed television advertisements have produced superior recall in college students. The current study indicates that young adults do recall more from time-compressed advertisements, but that elderly adults recall less and middle-aged adults are somewhere in between. These results hold for normal television advertisements as well.     

Fundamentals of Copy and Layout. Book,Albert C. and C. Dennis Schick. Chicago: Crain Books, 1984. $14.95

Abstract

The Federal Communications Commission relaxed commercial television licensee obligations regarding deceptive advertising in 1985. Local broadcasters may now decide which clearance policies to use to determine if advertisements are deceptive. A national mail survey of commercial television station sales managers was conducted to determine whether advertising clearance policies vary by station profitability or organization size. The proposition that clearance policies may be used to make a station's airtime more attractive to viewers was also given a preliminary test. Results suggest that clearance policies are affected by profitability level and organization size. The implications of study findings are discussed.     

Fast Food Television Advertisement Formats

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to examine favorite formats in hamburger television advertisements in order to assist companies in effectively communicating with their target audiences and to motivate those audiences to purchase products. The main findings of the study are that college students appear to prefer the special-effects format for presenting hamburgers in television advertisements. In addition, the testimonial format in television advertisements seems to motivate college students' purchase intentions for hamburgers more than other formats. Implications of the study regarding segmentation information usage, establishment of business image and individual purchase motivation, and the relationship between brand and format effects are discussed.     

Race Portrayals in Ghana,Kenya, and South Africa Television Advertisements

ABSTRACT

The current study examines racial portrayals in television advertisements from Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa. Whites are over-represented relative to their actual demographic presence in all three countries, and both Blacks and Whites are depicted as over-employed. In general, however, depictions are not significantly different for either race, though there is a hint that a stereotyped portrayal of Blacks as athletes and/or entertainer may be going global.     

Media and the American Mind: From Morse to Mcluhan. Czitrom,Daniel J. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1982, 254 pp. $19.95 cloth; $7.95 paperback

Abstract

In this article, the authors expand upon their previously published findings (9) on the use of Spanish-language broadcasting. Discriminant analysis was used to produce a profile of Mexican-Americans who prefer Spanish-language television over English-language television. A comparison of this profile with that previously derived for Spanish-language radio listeners indicates that while there is some overlap between these audiences, they are far from identical. The implications of these results should be considered by those anticipating implementing an ethnic segmentation strategy utilizing Spanish-language radio or television.     

Identifying an Advertisement Presenter's Tribe

ABSTRACT

In African countries it is generally important to identify another person's tribe when meeting that person for the first time. A similar process of identification also seems to take place when a consumer sees a presenter in an advertisement. This paper identifies the cues that are used in tribal identification, demonstrates that multiple cues are employed, and shows that nonvisual cues are generally more important than visual ones. It also finds that audience members notice a presenter's tribe more frequently in advertisements appearing on television than in those appearing in print or outdoor media. The managerial implications of these findings are discussed.     

The Incidence and Characteristics of Disclaimers in Children's Television Advertising

Abstract

This paper reports the results of research that updates and expands previous research on disclaimers in children's television. The study examines the incidence, form, position, language level and variance by product category of a sample of nearly 1,000 advertisements televised during children's programs.     

A longitudinal content analysis of gender role portrayal in Belgian television advertising

This study explores gender role portrayal in advertisements broadcasted on Belgian commercial television. We gathered a sample of 493 commercials (featuring 907 characters) randomly selected out of two periods (January 2002–April 2003, n = 250 and January 2009–April 2010, n = 243) from a database containing all advertisements broadcasted on Belgian commercial television. A content analysis was carried out using a coding scheme based on existing literature. Content categories included gender of the characters, gender roles (i.e. parental, housekeeping and professional expert) and sexual objectification. Hypotheses predicted that men and women would be represented differently in television advertising, and that these differences would reflect traditional gender stereotypes. Moreover, due to regulatory changes, we hypothesize that these differences should decrease over time. Results are largely in accordance with the existing literature. Women tend to be depicted as younger and are portrayed more often within dependent roles as caregiving parent, housewife or as sexual objects than men. A longitudinal analysis of role portrayal changes across two periods within and between genders indicates little change in gender role portrayals in Belgian television advertising between 2002–2003 and 2009–2010. Despite social and regulatory changes, gender stereotypes in advertising seem to persist over time.     

DeLozier,M. Wayne. The Marketing Communications Process. New York: Met-Raw-Hill Book Company, 1976

Abstract

This study examines such variables as program type, (drama vs. games). program time, viewing frequency, number of persons in the room, and the viewers sex as they affect the daytime television viewer's ability to recognize products which were (or were not) advertised on television programs viewed immediately prior to interviews conducted with a random sample of viewers from the Dayton, Ohio, metropolitan area. Results of this study indicate a number of statistically significant differences triggered by these variables-differences which have potentially large practical implications for television advertisers.     

Preston,Ivan L., The Tangled Web They Weave: Truth,Falsity, & Advertisers,Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994

Abstract

In an experiment, children in three grade levels (second, fourth, and sixth) viewed four advertisements. The children were shown advertisements with either metaphors in both pictorial and verbal form or a literal equivalent. The sixth graders interpreted more metaphors correctly than the fourth and second graders. In terms of recall of advertised content, the sixth and fourth graders recalled brand names, products, and additional copy better than the second graders. Within each grade level, metaphors did not enhance children's recall of advertised content or perceptions of the understandability of the advertisements and liking of the advertised products. The authors speculate that metaphors are most likely to enhance recall under conditions in which the metaphor serves as a direct representation linking the metaphor to the advertised product. Their findings suggest that advertisers should be aware that young readers may have difficulty interpreting metaphors and that metaphors may not be more effective in terms of children's recall and perception of understandability than literal versions of advertisements.     

Positive versus negative comparison in advertisements: the affect priming perspective

Abstract

Comparison valence is an important element in comparative advertising. In this research, we investigated how comparison valence influences advertising effectiveness and explored the role of affect underlying such effects. The results of two studies consistently confirmed that a positive comparison elicited more favorable ad attitude and brand attitude than a negative comparison and consumers’ affective states accounted for their preference for the positive comparison. Moreover, we found some preliminary evidence suggesting that the preference for a positive message may be more remarkable in comparative advertisements than noncomparative advertisements. However, this proposition needs further validation in future research.     

Ocko,Judy Young,and Rosenblum,M. L. The Specialty Store and its Advertising. New York: National Retail Merchants Association, 1976

Abstract

The authors report the findings of an experiment that investigated the influence of television programs on viewers' perceptions of television commercials. Specifically, program arousal and program pleasantness were examined as potentially important determinants of viewers' emotional responses to advertising. The experiment used a two (levels of program arousal) by two (levels of program pleasantness) design to assess the effects of the independent variables on viewers'perceptions of commercial pleasantness for a pod of four commercials. As hypothesized, an assimilation effect occurred in the high arousal condition and a contrast effect occurred in the low arousal condition. Implications of these results for researchers and practitioners are discussed.     

Howard,John A. and J. Hulbent. Advertising and the Public Interest. Chicago: Crain,Inc., 1973

Abstract

This study presents a content analysis of sexual portrayals in magazine advertisements during 1964 and 1984. The results show that the percentage of ads with sexual content did not increase over the twenty-year period, but that the types of sexual portrayals did; sexual illustrations became more overt; and there was a greater reliance on visual than verbal sex in 1984 than 1964. The study also found that female models are more likely to be portrayed as sexually clad, partially clad or nude than were male models.     

Modeling the Effects of Green Advertising on Brand Image: Investigating the Moderating Effects of Product Involvement Using Structural Equation

ABSTRACT

?This experimental study examined consumers’ response to green advertising for high- and low-involvement products by measuring its effect on consumers’ intention to purchase such brands. The present study enhances our understanding of the moderating role of product involvement and extends the structural equation tests of the four causal models. A dataset of 169 respondents is used to examine the role of brand image and brand attitude in the context of green advertisements. Consistent with earlier findings, the suggested model provides a good fit of the data and results indicate that positive attitude toward green advertisements, brand image, and attitude toward the brand enhances the chances of consumers’ purchase intention of such brands. The study also verifies that product involvement moderates the positive relationship between attitude toward green advertisements and brand image such that at higher levels of product involvement, attitude toward green advertisements has a stronger effect on brand image.     

The Personal Involvement Inventory: Reduction,Revision, and Application to Advertising

Abstract

The conceptualization of the Personal Involvement Inventory was a context-free measure applicable to involvement with products, with advertisements, and with purchase situations. The empirical work to develop this measure was mainly validated with respect to product categories. This paper extends the construct validation of the PII to involvement with advertisements and also demonstrates that the PII may be reliably reduced from twenty items to ten items. There is some indication the revised PII may then be broken into two subscales representing a cognitive and affective grouping.     

Humorous Illustration and Cartooning — A Guide for Editors,Advertisers, and Artists. Nelson,Roy Paul. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall,Inc., 1984. 243 Pp. $12.96

Abstract

Previous research on negative political advertising has found both intended and backlash effects, indicating that the impact of these ads is likely to be contingent on other factors. The current study examines some potentially important contingent variables — level of involvement and attention to both newspapers and television for political information. Regression analyses indicate that both enduring and situational involvement and attention to television news increase the impact of negative political ads on voting decisions. Although it initially appears that attention to newspaper is unrelated to the impact of negative ads, analysis of covariance shows that newspaper reading actually reduces the impact of negative ads after controlling for other variables.     

Advertising, 2nd Edition. Runyon,Kenneth E. Columbus,OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1984. 702 pp

Abstract

Despite cultural similarities between the United States and the United Kingdom, there are substantial differences between American and British television advertising. British commercials tend to contain less information, employ a soft sell rather than a hard sell approach, and attempt to entertain the viewer. British viewers' opinions of advertising are also more favorable than those of American viewers. It is important that scholars and practitioners concerned with these two markets and with international advertising generally be aware of these differences and understand why they have evolved. Possible explanations are evaluated and implications of these findings discussed, including areas for future research.     

William L. Rivers and William T. Slater,Aspen Handbook on the Media,Aspen Institute Program on Communications and Society,Palo Alto,California, 1975, 182 pp.

Abstract

A study of the use of humor in U.S. and U.K. television advertising was developed by surveying ad agency executives in the two countries and then by conducting a content analysis of television commercials. The survey of executives revealed a more accepting attitude toward the use of humor, and a broader view of the potential uses of humor among the British agencies. The content analysis showed a significant increase in the use of humor in the U.S. since the last major benchmark study, but less humor than in the U.K. sample of advertising. An examination of the content analysis data using the Foote, Cone and Belding (FCB) planning matrix revealed a situational use of humor in both countries, with humor most often used with low involvement/ feeling products and least often used with high involvement/feeling and thinking products. For the most part, the views of agency executives reflect the incidence and use of humor in their respective countries.