Elements of a horizontal product safety policy for the European Community

The article discusses elements of a horizontal general product safety policy for the European Community and its relationship with the new approach to technical harmonization and standardization. The following particular elements are treated: (a) the adoption of a general obligation for manufacturers to produce and market products which are safe; (b) the European Home and Leisure Accident Surveillance System as an instrument for improving the construction of products and for instigating follow-up market controls; (c) follow-up market controls (improving the Community System for the Rapid Exchange of Informations on Dangers Arising from the Use of Consumer Products, harmonization of the means of control and intervention in the several Member States, interim measures at Community level in cases where products constitute grave and immediate dangers in more than one Member State); (d) setting up a Standing Committee for all questions on product safety policy; (e) consumer participation in the standard-setting process; (f) the complementary function of the Product Liability Directive. The case-law of the European Court of Justice relating to the free movement of goods and the remaining competences of Member States are taken into account. Finally, the example of the proposed Directive on machinery makes clear that the new approach to technical harmonization and standardization interferes strongly with the established structures of worker and consumer safety regulations in the several Member States as well as with traditional procedures of standardization and certification.     

Managing new product development: Some alternative ways to organise the work of technical specialists

There is an increasing amount of management literature about how to manage the product development process. By‐and‐large this concentrates on organisational and management techniques to be applied within the enterprise. Based on a piece of empirical work carried out in a number of engineering‐based companies, this paper suggests a range of organisational and managerial options extending beyond the boundaries of the firm. For those firms engaged in product developments which require the expertise of technical specialists choices have to be made about how much occupational control these specialists exert; how much managerial control should be exercised over them; how much of this expertise should be available in‐house and how much bought‐in; and what relations there should be with government in the training and development of these technical experts. This paper explores these options in the context of a study of engineering designers.     

The Israeli approach to advertising: ethical and legal norms

The Israeli approach to advertising consists of two complementary sets of norms, legal norms and moral‐ethical norms. Advertising legislation demands honest disclosure. The Israeli legislator refrains from intervening in fundamental rights such as freedom of expression, free trade, occupation, and liberty of contract in advertising. However, there are also few interventions to prevent phenomena that are dangerous or abusive, especially to groups needing protection. The Israeli courts do try to apply moral considerations in cases tried by them, but living up to moral responsibilities is different from complying with legal obligations. Advertisers in Israel have a(i) Treatise(r), consisting of ten ethical guidelines, which neither sums up advertising ethics in its entirety nor is legally binding. Sociological and psychological features of the culture need to be examined in order to spell out what truth and honesty in advertising actually mean in this society, and the manner in which these values are practised. Lacking sanctions in public law against misleading consumers or manipulation based on false facts, consumers must find remedy in civil actions which rely on moral and ethical rules.     

Consumer law and legal theory: Reflections of a common lawyer

The author analyses some new theories on consumer law from the viewpoint of a lawyer trained in common law and having been involved in Australian legal policy. He voices criticisms against consumer law theory which takes contract law as its starting point; without a precise definition of the consumer it cannot specify its scope of application. The author advocates a more interventionist approach which makes clear that the state has responsibility for the well-being of consumers in cases of power imbalance even if the approach is characterized as paternalistic.

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Verbraucherrecht und Rechtstheorie — Überlegungen eines Praktikers

Zusammenfassung Der Verfasser untersucht neue Theorien zum Verbraucherrecht vom Standpunkt eines im common law trainierten und in der Australischen Rechtspolitik tätigen Praktikers. Er plädiert für ein pragmatisches Vorgehen. Er kritisiert Verbraucherrechtstheorien, die vom Vertrags- und Wettbewerbsrecht ausgehen, weil sie den Begriff des Verbrauchers nicht erfassen, ohne den aber der Anwendungsbereich von Schutzvorschriften nicht festgeschrieben werden kann. Trotz aller Paternalismuskritik zieht er ein Bekenntnis zur staatlichen Verantwortlichkeit für die Verbraucherwohlfahrt vor, weil sonst das Problem ungleicher Machtverteilung nicht gelöst werden kann.

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John Goldring is Foundation Dean and Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Wollongong, N.S.W., Australia, and a part-time member of the Australian Law Reform Commission.     

European unification,single markets,and product safety: The American experience with federal/state regulation of housing safety

The integration of Europe into a single market is accompanied by debate over whether a unified market requires uniform product safety standards for consumer products. The experience in the United States is that a single unified market can be created despite a variety of state safety requirements for products. The market is single if all producers are able to satisfy the regulatory requirements, and no special restrictions protect in-state producers, even though all products cannot be sold in all places. However, such a market is not static but dynamic. Effective regulatory structures are required to keep various government levels from deliberately or inadvertently sabotaging the single market. The most common problem is the use of consumer protection or safety justifications for economic protectionism. The experience with kerosene heaters, aluminum wire, and factory built housing shows the complex system required to respond to all of the safety concerns related to consumer products. The European Community (EC) may need to develop such as system or run the risk of either limiting its economic development, or allowing the distribution of unsafe products.

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Europäische Einigung, Binnenmarkt und Produktsicherheit: Amerikanische Erfahrungen mit Bundes- und einzelstaatlicher Regulierung der Sicherheit von Haushaltsprodukten

Zusammenfassung Der europäische Einigungsprozeß wirft die Frage auf, inwieweit ein einheitlicher Binnenmarkt auch einheitliche Normen der Produktsicherheit verlangt. Die amerikanische Erfahrung zeigt, daß ein einheitlicher Binnenmarkt geschaffen werden kann, wenn alle Hersteller die geltenden regulatorischen Anforderungen erfüllen und keine speziellen Vorschriften einheimische Hersteller schützen, selbst wenn die Produkte nicht überall verkauft werden können. Ein solcher Markt ist jedoch dynamisch, nicht statisch zu verstehen. Effektive regulatorische Strukturen sind erforderlich, um die verschiedenen staatlichen Zuständigkeitsebenen daran zu hindern, bewußt oder unbewußt den Binnenmarkt zu torpedieren. Das drängendste Problem besteht darin zu verhindern, daß Verbraucherschutz oder Produktsicherheit als Mittel wirtschaftlicher Abschottung mißbraucht werden. Die amerikanischen Beispiele der Regelung von Kerosinöfen, elektrischen Leitungen aus Aluminium sowie fabrikmäßig hergestellten Wohnhäusern verweisen auf die Komplexität eines Regulierungssystems, das auf die verschiedenen Sicherheitsanforderungen bei Verbrauchsprodukten reagiert. Daraus folgt insbesondere:Das amerikanische Beispiel der Produktregelung basiert nicht auf einem theoretischen Regulierungsmodell. Es besteht keine Regel, daß ähnliche Produkte in gleicher Weise geregelt werden müßten. In den USA werden deshalb unterschiedliche einzelstaatliche Produktregulierungen wegen ihres Experimentalcharakters positiv bewertet. Es ist auch politisch konsentiert, daß die Einzelstaaten unterschiedliche Schutzniveaus von Produktsicherheit aufweisen. Es besteht ein dynamischer Spannungszustand zwischen Bundes- und einzelstaatlicher Regulierung, der dazu führt, die Klarheit, wenn auch nicht immer die Qualität der Regulierung zu verbessern. In gewisser Weise besteht ein Wettbewerb zwischen Bundestaat und Einzelstaaten über die Regelungsmöglichkeit. Das Regulierungssystem kann sich technologischem Wandel anpassen, wenn auch mit Verzögerungen. Bestimmte Besonderheiten sind nur historisch erklärbar.Zweifelsohne bestehen Ineffizienzien im amerikanischen System, vor allem dort, wo die Industrie in der Lage ist, die zentralen Elemente des Regulierungsprozesses zu kontrollieren. Der Begriff der am wenigsten den Handel beschränkenden Alternative erweist sich als entscheidend, um zu bestimmen, ob das einzelstaatliche Interesse an lokaler Kontrolle dem bundestaatlichen Interesse an Einheitlichkeit vorgeht. Die Offenheit des Systems, verbunden mit Verfahrensgarantien, kann dabei helfen, protektionistische Elemente im Regulierungssystem abzubauen.Die Autoren plädieren dafür, die Ergebnisse der amerikanischen Regulierungserfahrungen auf den verschiedenen Ebenen auch für die Herstellung eines europäischen Binnenmarktes unter Berücksichtigung eines hohen Schutzniveaus an Produktsicherheit nutzbar zu machen.

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Vincent M. Brannigan is Associate Professor of Consumer Law, Department of Textiles and Consumer Economics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Carol B. Meeks is Professor of Housing Economics, Department of Housing and Consumer Economics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.     

新产品市场安全的可拓物元评价模型及应用

新产品进入市场的安全问题是目前众多企业非常关心的实际操作问题,同时营销评价问题是以营销工程为主要支撑的市场营销科学研究之一,但传统的评价方法过于粗糙且不够全面。本文在其他学者的研究结果基础之上通过调查统计分析构建了比较客观全面的市场安全风险因素指标体系,运用可拓理论中的优度评价法建立了新产品入市的市场安全评价模型。实证研究结果表明这种评价方法具有较高的准确性,对于深入研究产品的营销安全评价问题有一定借鉴意义。     

The contribution of granular and fundamental comparative advantage to European Union countries' export specialisation

This paper analyses the contribution of fundamental comparative advantage (a country-specific component) and granular comparative advantage (a firm-specific component) to European Union countries' export specialisation. We find that, on average, granular comparative advantage may explain export specialisation in 29% of industries, which account for 47% of total exports. We also show that 60% of the variation in export specialisation across countries and industries may be explained by granular comparative advantage. These results highlight that some outstanding firms may play a very important role in explaining European Union countries' export specialisation.     

The law and ethics of big data analytics: A new role for international human rights in the search for global standards

The Economist recently declared that digital information has overtaken oil as the world’s most valuable commodity. Big data technology is inherently global and borderless, yet little international consensus exists over what standards should govern its use. One source of global standards benefitting from considerable international consensus might be used to fill the gap: international human rights law. This article considers the extent to which international human rights law operates as a legal or ethical constraint on global commercial use of big data technologies. By providing clear baseline standards that apply worldwide, human rights can help shape cultural norms—implemented as ethical practices and global policies and procedures—about what businesses should do with their information technologies. In this way, human rights could play a broad and important role in shaping business thinking about the proper handling of this increasingly valuable commodity in the modern global society.     

The Galileo Project put to the test of European competition and public procurement law

The following article throws some light on the (fragile) legal foundations of the Galileo Project, the European Satellite Navigation System, and gives an interpretation of the normative procurement rules of the EU. Additionally it tries to reveal the practical problems of upholding the principle of free competition and an open market in as much as the procurement of high technology concerns a highly olipolistic market.     

浅谈会计准则的供给与需求及新会计准则概述

会计准则作为一种具有资源稀缺性、供给垄断性、消费非竞争性和供求双方效用函数矛盾性等基本特点的集体选择的典型的公共物品.本文通过运用经济学原理对会计准则进行很好的阐述解释,这有利于人们对会计准则的内涵有更深层次的理解把握,这就无疑给人们提供一种把握会计准则的更加广阔的视角,从而有利于政府进行会计准则的制定和完善工作,更好的为市场经济服务.     

Real exchange-rate changes in the European community: A new approach to the determination of optimum currency areas

Deviations from relative purchasing power parity (real exchange-rate changes) are suggested as a comprehensive and operational criterion of the desirability of currency unification. Using consumer price indices, the criterion is applied to the European Community in 1959–1976 and in various subperiods. It is shown, inter alia, that the Community is probably a less desirable currency area than comparable existing currency unions like Germany, Italy and the U.S., that its failure to implement its 1971 plans for monetary union can hardly be attributed to unusually unfavourable external disturbances and that it is possible to identify the member countries which are the most suitable candidates for a pioneer venture in currency unification.     

新会计准则下行政事业财政集中核算体制转变的必要性

中国经济向着市场化、国际化的方向快速发展.财政部为完善市场信息与运作发布了实施新会计准则.新准则发布后,立即成为社会各界关注的焦点,财政集中制度也在这种新的环境下也表现出自身的不足性,因此体制的转变开始显得尤为重要.     

简析新劳动合同法对人力资源管理的机遇与挑战

新劳动合同法的实施对我国人力资源管理和开发带来了巨大的冲击.劳动合同法的施行对我国人力资源管理提出了更高的要求.在新劳动合同法的大背景下,人力资源管理需要从多角度、多层次进行转变,以适应劳动合同法的规定,注意规避,强化各环节的法律风险意识.     

Bundling as a new product introduction strategy: The role of brand image and bundle features

Marketers can bundle an unknown brand with a strong brand as a new product introduction strategy. Drawing upon the categorization theory and the elaboration likelihood model, this study examines how a new brand can benefit from bundling with a strong brand. The results of two studies indicate that consumers’ quality perception of a new brand will be affected by the brand image of a bundle partner, and this effect is moderated by the bundle forms and the complementarity of bundle components. Academic and managerial implications of these findings are presented, along with suggestions for further research.     

Strategic orientation and new product performance: The roles of technological capability

Although prior research has examined the linkage between strategic orientation and new product performance, existing empirical evidence suggests exploration of the effects of a firm's internal factors on this linkage is required. This study aims to fill the marketing literature gap by addressing how technological capability moderates the strategic orientation‐new product performance relationship. This study measures new product performance as a two‐dimensional construct to avoid the oversimplified bias. Research hypotheses are tested using a sample of 121 information system product projects and a hierarchical regression approach is utilized. Results show that (a) technological capability strengthens the market orientation‐performance relationship and (b) technological capability affects the financial performance effects of market and technology orientations via market performance. Copyright © 2014 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

如何树立制造业企业产品成本的新观念

随着我国经济的不断发展,我国企业尤其是制造业的发展速度正在逐年加快.因此,对于如何正确、适时的树立制造业企业产品成本的新观念就显得尤为重要.本文意在解析与论述我国制造业企业产品成本的新观念,彰显出当今形势与经济下制造企业产品成本新观念的高效、合理、完善性.以此,帮助我国的制造业企业能够更快、更稳健的发展、壮大.