Ethical notions about the general application of marketing-techniques,derived from Jürgen Habermas' theory of human action

In modem Western society the widespread concept of marketing covers a considerable part of the field of action. This empirical datum can be related to a certain model of human being and of society. In this article the author tries to make two things clear: (a) the model of society that is related to the general application of marketing-techniques, and (b) the internal weakness of that model in a societal context of ‘choosing unconsciously’ for it. In particular the issue of bureaucratization is playing a central role in the analysis of that model. The reasoning is that the principle of exchange as a general applied problem-solving quantity in modem society implies the institutionalization of a definite form of an élite-mass model. And, in its turn, this implies a tendency to bureaucratization with the possibility of an unchecked character. This tendency is related with two pathologies of modern society. At this point the ethical problem arises when ‘choosing conscious’ for the above mentioned model. For supporting understandings for this analysis an excursion will be made to the theory of the German social-philosopher Jürgen Habermas.     

Ethical Thinking in Traditional Italian <Emphasis Type="Italic">Economia Aziendale</Emphasis> and the Stakeholder Management Theory: The Search for Possible Interactions

Over the last few years, there has been an exaggeratedly widespread and frequently confused use of the concepts of ‘stakeholder’ and ‘corporate social responsibility’. However, some interesting insights of both these notions can be found in traditional European business administration studies. In this article, the Italian view will be examined. In particular, this paper investigates the teachings of some of the historical masters of the Italian Economia Aziendale (EA), with particular attention to the concept of the azienda, its finalism and its essential characteristics, in order to verify some consistencies with the more recent Stakeholder Management Theory (SMT). Principles and considerations seem to emerge from EA scholars’ seminal works that unequivocally connect ethics with business decisions. EA fits in with SMT in many ways, and the former (EA) seems, moreover, to suggest a specific normative point of view from which the role of ethics in business activities can be approached.     

Relationship Marketing and the Challenge of Dialogical Interaction

SUMMARY

Our aim in this article is to challenge relationship marketing's hidden monological assumptions, and as a redress, position dialogical interaction at its core. First, we reflect on the common sense of ‘marketing communication’. Next, we clarify the concept of ‘dialogue’. We then comment on the concept of dialogue in markets, building on Karl Popper's idea of an open society, followed by scrutiny of general marketing practice to show that such dialogue is absent. We then consider the potential for marketing to be dialogical in nature. To do this we will make a necessary distinction between informational interaction, communicational interaction, and dialogical interaction. Finally, we draw the conclusion that dialogue is not so much a method of communication but an orientation to it, and consider some implications for marketing theory and practice.     

Reference budgets for counselling on how to manage private household finance – requirements and patterns based on international experience

The approach described in the present article intends to create a conceptual design for German reference budgets, which can be used for counselling purposes. The introductory presentation of the term ‘reference budget’ and its significance in general is followed by the explanation of budget management in private households in the microeconomic sense. This determines the requirements on budget counselling and the teaching of financial literacy. Moreover, being the ideal type, these represent the examination criteria applied for the assessment of available reference budgets. By a comparison of existing international approaches, it is then investigated whether and in which form reference budgets are used for counselling in various countries. The information thus obtained will conclusively be used to reflect the previous development process of German reference budgets. Their state of progress can be compared with the ideal type on the one hand and with internationally adopted concepts on the other hand. In conclusion, some requirements that follow from the ideal‐type view can already be fulfilled with the German concept of reference budgets. Others can serve as the distant goal towards which the long‐term process will be geared.     

ESTIMATING SECTORAL RATES OF SURPLUS VALUE: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

The ‘New Interpretation’ (NI) argues that Marxian value categories can be measured using price variables through the concept of monetary expression of labour time (MELT). Starting from the central insight of the NI, this paper focuses on the estimation of sectoral rates of surplus value. It will be suggested that the MELT is decomposed into two concepts, ‘value expression of labour time’ and ‘monetary expression of value’. As a result of this theoretically general consideration, the NI will be critically examined.     

Where do international board members come from? Country-level antecedents of international board member selection in European boards

In this paper, it is argued that boards internationalize by recruiting international directors in order to increase companies’ performance. However, increasing nationality diversity on a board can be costly considering that it potentially creates cooperative problems on a board due to fault-lines and separation processes. As a result, boards will prefer international candidates who are more similar to themselves on a variety of ‘distances’. Based on data collected regarding 5683 board members of 361 companies from 15 countries in 2005–2007, we discover that the greater the distance (cultural, institutional and geographical) between the candidates’ and the companies’ country-of-origin, the lower the fraction of board members of that nationality on boards. Subsequently, it is argued that historical ties between countries play a ‘distance compressing’ role and partially compensate for the effects of distance. A colonial tie between countries will make recruitment of these particular nationalities more likely than others.     

Assessing ‘meta-services’: customer's perceived value and behaviour

‘Meta-services’ are delivered by firms cooperating together through a network. How customers perceive such services has been scarcely studied. The main assumption here is that, after experiencing services delivered by networked firms, the consumers synthesise their perceptions in terms of the perceived value of the network and that this global assessment will better announce behavioural intentions than the commonly used satisfaction index. Passengers travelling on long-haul flights with a global airline alliance experience such ‘meta-services’ and were questioned through a dedicated survey to test a structural equation model. Most hypotheses are not contradicted by the data. Unlike most recent studies referring to perceived value, this concept is seen here as one-dimensional and is measured by a rather simple scale. This allows distinguishing the value concept from its determinants. Specific variables, such as effective coordination, information and harmonisation, proved also to be useful when measuring customers’ valuation of ‘meta-services’.     

Business policy,ethics and society

This section will cover (a) definition of business policy: strategic decisions in the enterprise; (b) ethical behaviour above and beyond the requirements of the law: what might this involve e.g. in respect of products and markets in which the business is prepared to operate? (c) does business have a responsibility towards ‘society’? For example, should businesses decide without being legally required to do so, to undertake activities which they think are in the national interest even if this may appear to conflict with strictly commercial interests? (d) if ethical/social decisions are required, who is to make them — at what levels of an enterprise — e.g. does the board make them all or are they also expected below board level? This section will also cover: (e) practical examples in the light of changing attitudes towards business and market behaviour in the 1980's and 1990's; (f) implications of attitudes towards corporate crime and of behaviour which may not be illegal but which may be regarded as ‘unacceptable’: this will be discussed with examples from experience in Australia and other countries. The section will first explain the meaning of the phrase ‘business policy’ and will briefly outline the kinds of strategic decision which have to be made in business enterprises. It will go on to consider whether there are things a business ‘ought’ or ‘ought not’ to do even if they are within the law. The section will illustrate these problems with examples in the light of changing attitudes towards business policy and market behaviour in the 1980's and 1990's. It will take into account some recent cases of corporate crime in Australia and elsewhere and also of behaviour which while neither against the law or outside the power of the board, might be thought ‘inappropriate’.     

Company Legitimacy in the New Millennium

The relationship between business and society changes over time, and periodically there is a ‘legitimization crisis’. The paper will briefly explore some important questions about company legitimacy: why is company legitimacy important; why do legitimacy crises occur; and finally, are we in a crisis at the moment, and if so how can it be solved? The legal institutionalization of business firms prescribes narrow accountabilities and limited responsibilities: the challenge for business in the new millennium is to open these up and to broaden our understanding of the social significance of business activity without destroying its wealth creating processes. This will require a rethinking of the relationship to the shareholder and a new definition of the relationship with stakeholders.     

Environmental education: a task for home economists

Environmental education, with its aims of promoting an awareness of and responsibility for the environment, should be a lifelong process in order to protect the environment now and in the future. As home economics education takes place at all levels and in all kinds of schools throughout the world it can be used to demonstrate practical consequences and to motivate personal responsibility. Multiplierc in home economics (professors, teachers, etc) therefore have to integrate environmental education into home economics education and training. It is very important not just to enter into the so called ‘technical protection’ of the environment (water cleaning, reduction of waste, etc.) but to integrate environmental issues into a global view based on a holistic concept. Environmental education in home economics in different countries will be analysed but the main example will be the environmental education in the Federal Republic of Germany (F. R. G.). At the same time questions of content and aims will be discussed.     

Supporting worklife learning at work to sustain employability

The concept of employability extends beyond initial occupational preparation into the ability to remain employable as, inevitably, occupational capacities and workplace requirements change frequently across working lives. Hence, the need to continually learn to remain occupationally current and respond to changing workplace requirements becomes paramount. The evidence suggests that much of that learning arises through individual efforts and the support of co-workers through work activities. So, there is a need to understand how that learning can be supported to sustain employability across lengthening working lives. Drawing on an Australian study, reported here are perspectives from managers and workers in diverse workplaces about current modes of continuing education and training and about how workers are assisted with their learning to meet personal needs and qthose of employers. Employers want an occupationally current workforce that can meet specific workplace needs; workers want the capacities to remain employable, which may extend to advancing their careers elsewhere. The data indicate differences in perceptions about what is being provided, how frequently the provisions are used, and the worth of its certification. Whilst the findings indicate shared concerns about the importance of learning, there were clear differences in views about the models and processes used to support that learning. Across both sets of informants can be seen distinctions between ‘training solutions’ and ‘learning solutions’. A more nuanced analysis suggests that the training solution is appropriate and effective at some point in workers' worklife trajectories but in other circumstances, learning through practice is proposed as being more efficacious.     

Positioning strategies for branding services in an emerging economy

ABSTRACT

The concept paper adopts a positioning type for the purpose of branding services in a transitioning economy. The consumer-based typology is deemed appropriate and relevant as it represents consumer expectations, reflecting the paper’s key argument that consumer-based positioning strategies are appropriate for branding purposes. Consequently, the paper adopts a positioning type for illustrative purpose. The three positioning strategies adopted were—‘service reliability’, ‘social responsibility’, and ‘branding’ apply to the Ghanaian context. The ‘service reliability’ strategy has a ‘universal’ appeal and is the most prevalent in application. The ‘social responsibility’ to a large extent reflects the caring and community-based nature of the Ghanaian society, whilst the ‘branding’ strategy appears more applicable to international than local firms. The paper contributes to theoretical knowledge in its key assertion that the application of consumer-based positioning strategies for branding is appropriate and beneficial. Practically, the derived propositions will guide the manager in decision making on branding.     

Strategic challenges and issues for Chinese managers and management in the global economy: conclusions

The contributions to this symposium on ‘Demystifying Chinese Management’ have attempted to tackle new strategic issues and challenges vis-à-vis the newly diversified ownership and management system which has occurred since Deng's economic reforms. It is clear that when we try to ‘make sense’ of management in the People's Republic of China, we must take into account the degree to which Chinese management has become distinctive, with an adaptation of exogenous knowledge to local circumstances and a relative degree of ‘convergence’ involving a synthesis of ‘local’, ‘glocal’ and ‘global’ forms.     

Do we understand each other? Toward a simulated empathy theory for entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurs often face the daunting task of predicting consumer demand before it exists—what consumers will want if and when the entrepreneur might make it available to them. Such alertness and judgment require an entrepreneur's vicarious imagination—the supposition of what a value experience would be like for another—such as empathy. Prevailing theories of empathy, however, are ill-suited for entrepreneurship theory as they are defined as and focused on an emotion-matching process. We propose that empathy be understood instead as a vicarious mental simulation of another's experience that, when accurate, produces similar emotions but also similar experiential knowledge. According to our ‘simulated empathy theory,’ empathy is a rational imagination process, intentional and knowledge-based. We connect this empathy process to contemporary entrepreneurship theory, namely opportunity recognition and evaluation processes. We also revise the concept of empathic accuracy accordingly, and derive therefrom some practical implications regarding how entrepreneurs can increase their empathic accuracy and, thereby, their chances of success.     

Neither bad apple nor bad barrel: how the societal context impacts unethical behavior in organizations

Every time another corporate scandal captures media headlines, the ‘bad apple vs. bad barrel’ discussion starts anew. Yet this debate overlooks the influence of the broader societal context on organizational behavior. In this article, we argue that misbehaviors of organizations (the ‘barrels’) and their members (the ‘apples’) cannot be addressed properly without a clear understanding of their broader context (the ‘larder’). Whereas previously, a strong societal framework dampened the practical application of the Homo economicus concept (business actors as perfectly rational and egocentric utility‐maximizing agents without any moral concern), specialization, individualization and globalization led to a business world disembedded from broader societal norms. This emancipated business world promotes a literal interpretation of Homo economicus among business organizations and their members. Consequently, we argue that the first step toward ‘healthier’ apples and barrels is to sanitize the larder, that is, adapt the framework in which organizations and their members evolve.     

After the wrongdoing: What managers should know about whistleblowing

Most of us are likely at some point to observe wrongdoing in our organizations, and some of us will blow the whistle to someone with the authority to put a stop to the wrongdoing. Or we may be managers, inspectors, or auditors who serve as the official ‘complaint recipient’ when one of our colleagues wants to report wrongdoing in the organization. Whether we blow the whistle or are tasked with cleaning up after someone else does so, we are better off knowing in advance how the whistleblowing process usually plays out. In this article we discuss the pragmatic implications of 30 years of systematic research about whistleblowing: who does it and when, and why they choose to report the wrongdoing internally (within the organization) or externally (to outsiders). To avoid external whistleblowing, which entails all sorts of costs for the organization, we recommend that managers take clear steps: investigate the allegations, make the results of the investigation known to those affected, correct the problem if one is found, and avoid reprisal against whistleblowers. These actions can increase the chance that information about organizational wrongdoing stays inside the organization, where it may be remedied, instead of being made public.     

THE GERMAN SERVICE GAP OR: RE‐ORGANISING THE MANUFACTURING––SERVICES PUZZLE

Two phenomena make the distinction between services and manufacturing obsolete: the tertiarization of manufacturing and the introduction of information technologies in service industries. Competitiveness of manufacturing firms increasingly depends on the quality of service inputs and on packages of goods and services. Information and communication technologies introduce ‘industrial’ processes of production in service industries. Hence, it does not make sense any more to use categories such as ‘services’ or ‘manufacturing’. Instead, it would be more meaningful to group economic activities according to input configurations. This paper will discuss these issues in the context of the supposed German ‘service gap’.     

The marketing of ideas advertising and road safety

The modern-day marketing concept makes a global reference to the set of symbolic transactions that characterize human exchanges. One of the best known forms of such expression is advertising. By assigning values to the objects that surround us, advertising molds people's imaginations through its creation of authentic myths. It is appropriate, therefore, in a marketing survey that tries to discern the personality of consumers, to analyze the symbolic configurations that are generated by advertising messages.We were commissioned to undertake such a psycho-semiotic content analysis for the Régie de l'assurance automobile du Québec (RAAQ), a Government of Québec agency that, among other things, regulates the provision of automobile insurance and maintains statistics on road accidents in the province of Quebec, Canada. An increase in motorcycle accidents has spurred RAAQ officials to take stronger measures to promote road safety. The objective of our analysis was to evaluate the way in which motorcycle advertisements might be responsible — at least in part — for this increase.Although one cannot draw the unequivocal conclusion that these advertisements lead to carelessness in motorcyclists, this analysis nonetheless indicates that there does exist a certain number of elements in these ads that promote ‘recklessness’ on the road. The constant references to power, to overtaking other motorists, and to euphoria — ‘Pour un moment d'éternité, ne faites pas de compromis’ (’for one moment of eternity, make no compromises’), insists one of the slogans — can only raise some concerns.     

Editorial: On submitting economics articles to JBV

This editorial provides guidance to authors considering submitting papers with economics content to Journal of Business Venturing. The aim of the journal is to publish high-impact articles on entrepreneurship which combine methodological rigor with comprehensibility (‘accessibility’). Since many economics articles are technically demanding, accessibility to non-technical readers can be a major challenge for authors. This editorial provides some advice for authors of such articles to make their articles more closely targeted on the core interests of the journal's readership and more accessible to non-technical readers. To this end, the editorial suggests that potential authors might benefit from adopting one of the following ‘3R’ strategies: ‘Remove’, ‘Reduce’ or ‘Relate’. It is hoped that this editorial provides useful and actionable guidance for economics researchers submitting theoretical and empirical papers to Journal of Business Venturing.     

A conceptual model for managing long-term inter-organisational relationships

This paper will discuss the concept of relationship development. It will argue that whilst existing literature focuses on an economic power relationship this is incorrect. The focus should be based on a concentration on the trade off between the level of dependency that a firm is prepared to accept, compared to the level of certainty that they perceive to be realistic.The paper will explore the literature on relationship management and will take several established frameworks and argue that whilst they have substantial merit their focus is not helpful to relationship implementation and management. A conceptual model is presented which provides a different way of viewing relationships using the theoretical concept of ‘game theory’. This paper suggests that relationships are processes and not entities. As such the unit of analysis should be at the product, service or commodity level and not at the firm level. The approach suggested whilst conceptual, has been developed from several years of research with a variety of firms across a range of industries; some case studies will be used to illustrate the applicability of the framework.