Fertility Decisions and Gender Differences in Labor Turnover, Employment, and Wages

A striking observation of the U.S. and other labor markets is the weak position of women in terms of job attachment, employment, and earnings relative to men. We develop a model of fertility and labor market decisions to study the impact of fertility on gender differences in labor turnover, employment, and wages. In our framework, individuals search for jobs and accumulate general (experience) and specific (tenure) human capital when they work. They can also increase their wage by moving to a job of higher quality. Labor market decisions (e.g., job acceptance and job mobility) may differ across genders: females that give birth may decide to interrupt their labor market attachment in order to enjoy the value of staying at home with their children. The model economy is successfully calibrated to match aggregate statistics in terms of fertility, employment, and wages. We find that fertility decisions generate important gender differences in turnover rates, with long lasting effects in employment and wages. These differences in labor turnover account for almost all the U.S. gender wage gap that is attributed to labor market experience by Blau and Kahn (2000, Journal of Labor Economics15(1), 1–42). The model also implies a very small role of tenure capital in accounting for wage differences between males and females (gender gap), and between females with and without children (family gap). Journal of Economic Literature Classification Numbers: E24, J13, J21, J31.     

Gender Differences in Time-Poverty in Rural Mozambique

Based on time-use data from a 2013 primary household survey, this study examines the nature and extent of time-poverty experienced by men and women in peasant households in Mozambique. The main findings indicate that while women's labor allocation to economic activities is comparable to that of men, household chores and care work are almost entirely women's responsibility. The heavy burden of responsibilities leave women significantly time-poorer compared to men. Women's time-poverty worsens when the burden of simultaneous care work is taken into account. In addition, due to multitasking, the work tends to be more taxing. The examination of determinants of time-poverty shows that common measures of individual economic power, such as assets and education, do not necessarily affect the time-poverty faced by women.     

中国城市劳动力市场上的性别工资差异

本文描述了中国城市劳动力市场上男女在行业获得和工资上的差异,并且用计量方法对工资差异进行了分解。分解结果表明,男女工资差异主要由同类行业内工资差异引起,而由于两者行业分布不同而带来的工资差异不大;歧视是造成性别之间的工资差异的主要原因,人力资本所起的作用很小。由此,缩小行业内的工资差异,消除对女性的歧视,是缩小工资性别差异的重要途径。     

Gender Disparities in the Labor Market in the EU

Gender equality, a policy objective of basically universal acceptance, has become a subject of interest in national governments, international organizations, research instructions, and political pressure groups. This paper reports recent investigations regarding gender disparities in the labor market. The main aim of our study is to identify factors affecting gender earning disparities in the European Union member states. Empirical research is provided in two separate areas. The first one focuses on the gender pay gap in the EU based on SES 2006 data. The second one is a detailed analysis of factors influencing wages in Poland, employing LFS 2009 data.     

劳动力市场性别歧视行为分析

性别歧视是劳动力市场一种常见的行为,表现在两性就业、工资、职业安排、劳动保障和发展机会等方面程度不同的差别.然而,以经济学的逻辑,不同性别的报酬或职业差异本身并不能作为歧视的充分证明,因为,教育水平、年龄、工作经验和工时数量等很多因素都决定生产率的特征,甚至这种差异还可能来自两性对从事市场或家务劳动的不同选择.一个人在劳动力市场上的价值取决于影响其边际劳动生产率的所有供给和需求因素,如果与生产率无关的因素在劳动力市场上取得了正的或负的价值,才可能导致歧视.理性地认识性别歧视和对其原因进行剖析,有助于女性劳动者对提高自己禀赋资源以获得更高产生率的深刻理解.     

农村工业化以及人力资本在农村劳动力市场中的角色

农村劳动力市场从多个渠道给教育带来了回报。用Heckman模型估计 ,教育的工资回报在 1 991— 1 997年为 0— 5% ,而且不显著。但是教育显著提高了人们到工业部门工作的机会 ,由此带来的回报在 5%— 7%。教育还提高了人们到高工资部门工作的机会 ,改善了人们的工作方式。     

Race,Gender and Regional Labor Market Inequalities in Brazil

This study investigates the relationship between unequal regional development and racial and gender wage inequality in Brazil. Using sample data from the 1991 Brazilian census, I estimated monthly wages for a white, brown and black women and men working in the states of S"o Paulo and Bahia. The findings suggest that while women and Afro-Brazilians in Brazil's most developed region of S"o Paulo had the advantages of higher levels of state sponsored work benefits and more equitable occupational and wage distribution, they nevertheless experienced the greatest discrimination. In contrast, the less developed state of Bahia where racial and gender gaps in education, occupation and wages were the most severe, wage discrimination was lowest.     

Child Gender,Intergenerational Kinship and Parental Labor Market Outcomes

This paper provides new evidence of the effects of child gender on parental labor market outcomes. Using data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, I document a son premium on the intensive margin of parental labor supply in two‐parent families with one child. Parents with a newborn to a 6‐year‐old son have higher labor supply than parents with a daughter in the same age group. A further examination indicates that boys are likely to have better access to grandparent‐provided childcare than girls owing to grandson preference, and this allows parents with a preschool‐aged son to work more. The intensification of market work associated with having a son may affect economic outcomes over the lifecycle of parents through labor market attachment. This paper thus sheds light on the important distributional effects of family ties and culture on economic outcomes.     

社会排斥与劳动力市场分割——以性别歧视为例

劳动力市场因其社会性与制度性因素至少被分割成主要和次要两个层次,较之主要市场.次要市场的就业条件差、待遇低和发展机会少.女性劳动者因其社会性别角色的定位,往往被排斥在次要劳动力市场,就业困难且频遭歧视.社会性别排斥是劳动力市场分割的"借口",而分割的劳动力市场又强化了社会性别的排斥程度,如果没有相关的约束,这个恶性循环机制难以规避.正如商品和资本市场,在劳动力市场中,一方改进的代价是另一方的受损,无论如何效率和福利都没有实现最优,存在着改进的必要.本文深刻剖析社会排斥与中国劳动力市场分割的原因及危害,为政策和制度的建立提供理论研究的依据.     

竞争性的劳动力市场与劳动力市场分割

市场机制的主要功能,是使社会有限的资源,特别是劳动力资源配置到效率或效益最高的部门或领域。劳动力使用权的转让与购买过程,同时就是劳动力资源在各种用途之间的分配过程。竞争性的劳动力市场是一种理论抽象,现实生活中的劳动力市场,是不完全竞争的,并由此引伸出劳动力市场竞争的理论与劳动力市场分割的实际之间的对立统一。     

Gender Inequalities in Labor Market Outcomes of Informal Caregivers near Retirement Age in Urban China

ABSTRACT

This study examines the impacts of unpaid family care on labor supply and earnings of women and men near retirement age in urban China. Using the 2011 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) and ordinary least squares (OLS) and instrumental variable approaches, it finds that grandchild care is negatively associated with both women's and men's labor force participation, while there are no effects for eldercare. For women caregivers, caring for grandchildren substantially lowers paid labor hours compared to noncaregivers. No significant relationships are found between eldercare and paid labor hours of women workers. For men workers, neither grandchild care nor eldercare is significantly associated with labor hours. The study also finds no statistically significant relationships between grandchild care and labor earnings for either women or men. Eldercare, however, is positively associated with the earnings of men workers.     

建立我国城乡协调的劳动力市场研究

以对我国劳动力市场建设状况的大量调查为基础，分析我国城乡劳动力市场的现状，存在的问题和产生的根源，并提出了建设我国城乡协调的劳动力市场的改革方向和一些政策建议。     

Gender Differences in Recruitment Outcomes

The paper tests the hypothesis that female applicants have a lower probability of being hired from a pool of applicants than their male counterparts. The results indicate that male and female candidates have about the same probability of being hired independently of the type of vacancy. The probability of hiring a candidate of a certain sex is therefore determined by the gender composition of the pool of applicants who have selected themselves on the basis of job characteristics, hiring standards and the type of sector. This indicates that male and female job-seekers select themselves in such a way that they have equal probabilities of being accepted.     

Labor Market Experiment

This experiment involves having students search in a hypothetical job market for jobs paying wages in a known range but an unknown wage distribution. Different trials change variables to allow for search costs, unemployment insurance, recessions, and investment in human capital.     

劳动力市场分层与中国城乡人力资本转移

中国劳动力市场分层构成了对农村劳动力的歧视,并导致农村劳动力的人力资本投资收益率降低。歧视的存在降低了双方的受益,对农村转移劳动力的损害大于对城市劳动力的损害。在中国城市化的制度演变中,既要加强国家自上而下的强制性变迁,又要加强配套的制度安排。     

Gender Differences in Italian Children's Capabilities

This paper analyzes children's well-being using the capability approach, with a special focus on gender differences. The two areas analyzed are the capability of senses, imagination, and thought; and the capability of play. Using data from the 2008 Multipurpose Survey on Daily Life released by the Italian National Institute of Statistics, a structural equation model is estimated in which the capabilities are defined as latent variables that are intrinsically interrelated. For each capability, a set of indicators of functionings is utilized and the effects of individual and social conversion factors – including parents’ unpaid work, their level of education, and employment status – are analyzed. The model is applied to Italian girls and boys ages 6–10 in 2008. The analysis confirms that the two capabilities are interrelated. Policies aimed at improving children's achievements in education also improve the capability of play and vice versa. Differences by gender occur in the factors’ effects.     

Information Cascades in the Labor Market

A model of herding behavior in the labor market is presented where employers receive signals with limited precision about the workers types, and can observe previous employers decisions. Both the employer and the worker can influence the signal probabilities. In particular, the employer tries to increase the precision of the signal about the workers type whereas the worker wants to get a good signal, independent of her type. In a two-period model, we derive conditions for an equilibrium in which only down-cascades occur, i.e., the second employer does not hire a worker with a bad history even if he receives a favorable private signal about the workers type, but he follows his own signal if the workers history is good.     

日本内部劳动力市场研究

内部劳动力市场作为日本企业经营管理特点,在日本经济高速增长中发挥了重要的作用,充分体现出其优势.然而,随着经济全球化、自由化的不断深化,日本内部劳动力市场的劣势更加明显,因此由外部劳动力市场替代的改革呼声甚高,并且正在发生变化.本文认为,正确理解和评价日本内部劳动力市场的兴衰,有助于我们科学地研究和解决我国国有企业的就业体制改革与重新建构问题,对中国培育和构建符合市场经济的劳动力市场具有重要的意义.     

城市劳动力市场中户籍歧视的变化:农民工的就业与工资

本文利用中国社会科学院人口与劳动经济研究所的中国城市劳动力调查,从就业进入、工资影响因素和工资歧视三个方面对2001年、2010年城市劳动力市场中户籍歧视的变化进行研究。对农民工和城市本地劳动力教育回报率的比较发现,农民工的教育回报率大幅提高,与相同学历的城市本地劳动力的教育回报率相似。农民工的工资决定机制与城市本地劳动力正在趋同。2010年农民工面临的就业隔离比2001年大幅下降,而且在各部门内部小时工资的歧视也大幅下降。然而,当农民工进入公有单位时依然受到较强歧视,就业隔离依然存在,因此,城市劳动力市场需要进一步健全,仍需规范公有单位的用工和招聘制度。