A framework for evaluating and designing collaborative planning

Collaborative planning processes have been criticized for inefficiency, but attempts to improve them in planning of urban nature have been limited by lack of usable evaluation methodologies. This paper presents a framework for evaluating and designing collaborative processes in strategic planning of land use and nature areas. A framework with four key perspectives and their success criteria was developed with the help of literature and data from interviews and focus groups in two case areas in the Helsinki metropolitan area, Finland. Planning organizations can use the framework as a tool and source of inspiration in designing collaborative processes and their evaluation, and in shifting their practices towards the organizations’ own specified goals. A conscious design of more efficient and holistic collaborative planning can be achieved with case-specific operationalizing of this framework.     

Cross-level information and influence in mandated participatory planning: Alternative pathways to sustainable water management in Germany's implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive

State and non-state actors increasingly work across scales to address complex environmental problems. Prior studies of stakeholder participation have not fully examined how collaborative processes play out in multi-level policymaking. At the same time, multi-level governance studies do not adequately investigate the impacts of stakeholder participation. This study examines the cross-level interactions of influence and information in the participatory implementation of the European Union's Water Framework Directive. This directive is an example of mandated participatory planning, a relatively new approach that engages grassroots collaboration through a top-down structure with nested policy cycles. A case analysis of three collaborative planning units in the Land of Lower Saxony, within the federal governance structure of Germany, finds limited influence and information transmission across levels via formal planning and implementation processes. However, the collaborative efforts did yield alternative pathways for achieving substantive progress toward the directive's aims via learning, coordination, and buy-in among participants.     

Socioeconomic drivers of forest loss and fragmentation: A comparison between different land use planning schemes and policy implications

Forest loss and fragmentation, which generate various negative environmental and ecological consequences, have become widespread phenomena across the globe. Motivation to investigate the underlying drivers is essential for land use planning and policy decision making. This paper characterizes forest loss and fragmentation from 1979 to 2014 in the Ningbo region (China) using multitemporal satellite imageries and a set of landscape metrics (area-weighted mean patch area, edge density, area-weighted shape index, Euclidean nearest neighbor distance, effective mesh size and total area); and then quantifies the responsible socioeconomic drivers (economy, social activities, science and technology, culture and policy, demography) under different land use planning schemes (urban and non-urban) using multivariate linear regression. Results show that the two zones present identical trend of intensifying forest loss and fragmentation but differ in changing magnitude and speed. More specifically, forest loss and fragmentation in the non-urban planning zone occurs at a significantly higher pace and magnitude. For the urban planning zone, population pressure, economic growth and fruit consumption are the primary drivers of forest loss, while forest fragmentation is mainly driven by economic openness, cash crop consumption and environmental protection consciousness. For the non-urban planning zone, income increases, fruit consumption and infrastructure development are the primary drivers of forest loss, while infrastructure and tourism development are the major drivers of forest fragmentation. Besides, forest loss and fragmentation in the two zones are both heavily subjected to land use policy. The variance partitioning analysis highlights that the policy driver is the most influential one and economic driver also has strong effect on forest loss and fragmentation in the urban planning zone. For the non-urban planning zone, the influence of policy driver is the strongest and social activity is also very powerful. These results provide compelling evidence that land use planning fails to play an efficient role in protecting forest resources in the Ningbo region. The failure should be attributed to several issues associated with land use planning and forestry governance that widely exist in China. We finally propose some pertinent implications and suggestions for China’s land use planning and forest policy. This study is believed to advance the understanding of the socioeconomic drivers of forest loss and fragmentation. It therefore provides some new insights in land use policy.     

Metropolitan land-change science: A framework for research on tropical and subtropical forest recovery in city-regions

In efforts to promote transitions to sustainability in city-regions, government and nongovernment actors throughout the world are devising comprehensive sustainability strategies and implementing a variety of environmental policies. Social actors in many city-regions view forest stewardship as an important element of this integrated approach. Generally, urban sustainability goals are guided by the principles of ecological integrity, environmental quality, social equity, social inclusion, and social justice. In other words, sustainable urban development should foster a good quality of life for all by providing equitable access to adequate economic opportunity, housing, education, public services, ecosystem services, and environmental amenities. Governance structures should pursue these goals democratically with legitimacy, transparency, and accountability. Effective sustainability planning and management depend on the reliability of land-use monitoring and modeling approaches. They also require field-based, qualitative empirical research to understand the complex social dynamics that are invisible from space. The aim of this paper is to encourage international, cross-disciplinary dialogue on the conceptual, theoretical, methodological, and practical groundwork necessary to effectively carry out metropolitan land-change science, particularly for rapidly expanding small- and medium-sized cities in developing countries. I begin by presenting the paper's central conceptual and theoretical framework. Next, I explore existing analytical and methodological approaches to the study of land-use dynamics in metropolitan regions. After a brief discussion of specific opportunities and challenges for collaborative, interdisciplinary research in support of metropolitan land-change science, I conclude by proposing a four-part agenda for coordinated investigation of tropical and subtropical forest recovery in city-regions worldwide.     

Multifunctional forest management in Northern Portugal: Moving from scenarios to governance for sustainable development

If there is a strong argument in favour of multifunctional forest management, there is also controversy regarding the types of multifunctionality able to instil virtuous circles across landscapes. Managing forests in such a way that user groups, sustainability practitioners and forestry institutions all agree to, is not easy. For any reliable consensus to occur, via viable landscape design procedures, through which multiple functions (production, environmental protection and recreation) may be coordinated by means of innovative planning, there is a need to negotiate a set of common objectives and shared responsibilities. This paper examines the policy dimensions of multifunctional forest management, and, through an exploratory case study, proposes an approach for cooperative planning and institutional design. The case study involved two parishes in the Minho region of Portugal (Gavieira and Entre Ambos-os-Rios) combining the local communities, the National Park, and local forestry officers. The case study created, developed and validated two scenario storylines through a series of participatory processes (two focus group meetings, one comprehensive workshop, and one expert meeting). One scenario focussed on continuity of the traditional management patterns, with an emphasis on direct goods such as timber and livestock grazing (traditional multifunctionality). The other concentrated on indirect ecological services, such as soil and water protection, as well as carbon sequestration (new multifunctionality). An attempt was also made to implement the scenario storylines through initiating a pilot project in both of the case study areas. However, there were neither robust planning mechanisms nor adaptive governance systems with the capacity to put into place forest management “futures” likely to deliver more sustainable landscape-scale uses in these areas. This paper illustrates the difficulties in forging governance systems that have the capacity and the vision to be able to put sustainable development concepts into practice, even when a coherent package of planning measures are tried out, given a policy setting that is confused, contradictory, and where the “status quo” tends to be given prominence.     

The economic valuation of natural hazards in mountain forests: An approach based on the replacement cost method

Protection from natural hazards is the most important function of mountain forests from an ecological, economic and social point of view. This assertion has been widely debated in recent years by a number of authors. In this paper we focus on the economic aspects of the protective function of forests, developing a quick and simple estimation method that can be applied on a local scale. We present the results of its application in an Italian Alpine forest. After having identified the main forest attributes directly or indirectly involved in protection, the economic value of the protective function for homogeneous zones was estimated by applying the replacement cost method. This value enables environmental concerns to be included in forest planning and political decision-making.     

Efficiency in forest management: A multiobjective harvest scheduling model

This paper presents a new forest harvest scheduling model taking into account four conflicting objectives. The economic factor of timber production is considered and also aspects related to environmental protection. We also incorporate adjacency constraints to limit the maximum contiguous area where clear-cutting can be applied. The model proposed is applied to a timber production plantation in Cuba located in the region of Pinar del Río. One factor to be taken into account in Cuban plantations is that the forest has a highly unbalanced age distribution. Therefore, in addition to the classical objectives of forest planning, we have the objective of rebalancing age distribution by the end of the planning horizon. Explicitly, the four objectives considered in the model are: (a) obtaining a balance-aged forest; (b) minimizing the area with trees older than the rotation age; (c) maximizing the NPV of the forest over the planning horizon; and (d) maximizing total carbon sequestration over the whole planning horizon. The solution to the proposed model provides a set of efficient management plans that are of assistance in analysing the tradeoffs between the economic and ecological objectives. The model is also applied to randomly generated simulated forests to compare its performance in other contexts. As the problem is a multiobjective binary nonlinear model, a metaheuristic procedure is used in order to solve it.     

Is spatial planning a collaborative learning process? A case study from a rural–urban gradient in Sweden

International and national policies stress the importance of spatial planning for the long-term sustainability of regions. This paper identifies the extent to which the spatial planning in a Swedish region can be characterised as a collaborative learning process. By combining qualitative interviews and systems thinking methods we analysed the main attributes of public-led spatial (i.e. comprehensive) planning in nine municipalities representing a steep urban–rural gradient in the Bergslagen region of Central Sweden. We show that the attributes of strategic spatial planning needed for collaborative learning were absent or undeveloped. All studied municipalities experienced challenges in coordinating complex issues regarding long-term planning to steer territorial development and help to solve conflicts among competing interests. Stakeholder participation was identified as a basic condition for social learning in planning. Together with stakeholders we identified the causal structure behind stakeholder participation in municipal planning processes, including main drivers and feedback loops. We conclude that there is a need for arenas allowing and promoting stakeholder activity, participation and inclusion that combines both bottom-up and top-down approaches, and where evidence-based collaborative learning can occur.     

Encouraging collaboration for the provision of ecosystem services at a landscape scale—Rethinking agri-environmental payments

In this viewpoint we draw on insights from participatory agri-environmental policy making, spatial planning and collaborative approaches to environmental management. We propose steps for planning, design and implementation of agri-environmental payment schemes that will encourage collaboration and co-ordinated actions at a landscape scale to contribute more effectively to the continued provision of ecosystem services.     

森林绿色核算中环境服务估价方法综述和比较

综述和比较了国内外森林绿色核算中的环境服务估价方法。指出:森林环境服务实际上是指森林的间接效益,主要包括森林生态效益和社会效益。联合国等在综合环境经济核算体系中推荐的森林环境服务估价方法主要为基于成本的估价法和基于损害/受益的估价法。不同的方法估算相同的环境服务项目,结果相差几倍到几十倍不等。因此,对于森林环境服务估价来说,选择科学的估价方法非常重要,并建议我国应采用联合国等推荐的方法进行环境服务估价。     

Is there an Environmental Kuznets Curve for clearcutting in Canadian forests?

This study investigates the macroeconomic forces underlying forest clearcutting practices across Canada. In keeping with the relevant literature on environmental degradation, three forces are assumed to influence forest clearcutting: per capita gross domestic product (GDP), technology, and population density. While previous work has used models that assume linear relationships between the latter two variables and environmental degradation, this paper employs a more flexible (quadratic) model. Pooled regression analysis in the Atlantic, Quebec, Ontario, Prairie, and British Columbia regions between 1975-99 indicates that while technological change tends to have an inverted U-shaped relationship with forest area clearcut, population and GDP/capita tend to have the opposite effects. This last variable finding strongly rejects the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis of an inverted U-shaped relationship between GDP/capita and forest area clearcut in Canada.     

Modeling of ecosystem services informs spatial planning in lands adjacent to the Sarvelat and Javaherdasht protected area in northern Iran

Dynamic models of ecosystem services supply and scenario analysis of changes in multiple services are being increasingly used to support land use planning and decision making. This approach reduces potential and real conflicts among various stakeholders potentially creating win–win solutions for all. It is particularly applicable in areas where insufficient land for agriculture and settlements is resulting in high rates of conversion of natural forest and grasslands. We quantified and mapped multiple ecosystem services, including habitat provision as a proxy for biodiversity, carbon storage and sequestration, and water balance and supply in the Sarvelat and Javaherdasht region of the globally-significant Hyrcanian (Caspian) forests in northern Iran using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs tool. This region is experiencing a rapidly increasing rate of forest conversion and as a result, the protected area located within the study landscape is threatened by human encroachment. Plausible future landscapes were modeled under three scenarios: (i) business as usual; (ii) protection-based zoning which reflects an expansion of the protected area boundary to prevent land use changes; and (iii) collaborative zoning through redefining the protection boundary simultaneously with an adjustment to meet local stakeholders’ objective of expansion of anthropogenic cover. The results showed that the collaborative zoning scenario would best contribute to effective policy because it presents a more rational spatial configuration of the landscape maintaining the provision of ecosystem services. This scenario may lead to reduced environmental impacts while achieving less conflict between the government and local communities. These results will help to inform and shape natural resource management policies in Iran and is applicable elsewhere in the world.     

基于吉尼系数原理的森林资源分布非均衡性评价模型与实证研究

将西方经济学原理与中国国情、林情结合,建立了森林资源分布非均衡性评价的一般模型。实证研究发现,在第四次、第五次森林清查期间,我国森林资源的吉尼系数均大大超过世界公认的吉尼系数警戒线,已达到两极分化线,并且森林资源洛伦斯曲线有弯曲程度加大的趋势。表明在此期间虽然森林覆盖率显著提高,但森林分布不均衡特征显著恶化,部分区域生态环境仍相当脆弱。建议坚持科学发展观,将改善森林资源分布相对均衡性要求纳入我国林业战略规划。     

浙江省温州市土地利用总体规划环境影响预警系统的构建

新一轮全国土地利用总体规划要求对市级以上土地利用总体规划进行环境影响评价。通过分析温州市土地利用总体规划环境影响评价过程,提出其规划过程缺乏过程监管的现状。在参考相关研究的基础上,提出建立基于生态服务价值法构建土地利用总体规划环境影响预警系统是解决问题的重要途径,并对预警系统的总体架构和子系统进行了设计。该系统对实现环境友好的、可持续的土地利用模式,以达到生态、社会、经济的全面发展具有重要意义。     

Conflicts over Locally Unwanted Land Uses (LULUs): Reasons and solutions for case studies in Izmir (Turkey)

Land use planning affects many different and usually conflicting interests. While every land use planning decision has a potential of creating conflicts, Locally Unwanted Land Uses (LULUs) are the most conflict facing subjects in urban land use planning processes. This paper aims to answer the question “what are the reasons and solutions for conflicts in the planning processes of LULUs”. This paper is based on a research examining LULU cases in İzmir, Turkey including solid waste facilities, fisheries and quarries to find out the reasons and the solutions for LULU conflicts. The research findings suggest that the conflicts stem not only from negative effects of LULUs on environment and community but also from procedural deficiencies such as lack of knowledge and lack of trust. The findings also call for planning processes with more consideration of local level and public participation seeking for consensus. Meanwhile, the conclusions underline the limitations for the success of participatory processes in which conflicts are resolved with attempts including symbolic benefits rather than considering exact interests of local people.     

Adapting the optimal selective-logging of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands in NE Spain to increasing CO2 concentrations

Predicted increases in CO₂ concentrations will affect forest ecosystems. In particular, they will impact tree growth, which in turn affects reproduction and mortality and consequently, forest planning. This study integrates different climate change scenarios of future biogeochemical processes and an economic model into a forest management model to determine the optimal selective-logging regime of Scots pine stands. It analyzes the economic implications of the management changes in comparison with the business as usual strategy. Adaption to new climatic conditions shows that it is optimal to increase the number of standing trees and to reduce the age of the logged trees. The results suggest that the failure to adapt the management regime has clear implications on the profitability of forests. Moreover, they show that higher mortality is likely to have a significant impact on the optimal forest management regime.     

Making community forest management work in northern Vietnam by pioneering participatory action

Transfer of land-use rights from the state to individual households and groups of households to encourage community forest management (CFM) and use of forest resources for livelihood improvement, has been in place in Vietnam since the 1990s. However, to date there has been no evidence of allocation to groups of households as community entities with joint ownership. This paper examines the success of processes tested in four villages in mountainous northern Vietnam to officially secure joint ownership of and exclusive rights to community forest land. After four years, implementation of CFM led to enhanced equality and distribution of benefits, and better protection of forest resources. Household income remained largely unchanged, in part because of loss of income from activities which were now illegal, but also because it was too early for benefits to flow from new forestry initiatives. Active participation of and between village communities in land-use planning and allocation, and a willingness to compromise, particularly on the position of land boundaries, were essential elements to ensuring equity in the distribution of benefits. Lack of enabling processes and experience in the implementation of government policies mean that further support for village communities is needed to fully realize the benefits from joint management of the allocated community forest.     

Planning road networks in landslide-prone areas: A case study from the northern forests of Iran

Road development in mountainous forestlands can lead to naturally formed slopes being disturbed. Efficient planning methodologies can assist forest engineers in either preventing or reducing the environmental impacts of forest roads. In this study, we first prepared an inclusive landslide susceptibility map for our study area using a Bayesian model. We next designed 12 road network alternatives using PEGGER, an ArcView GIS extension. We extracted the values of these alternatives from the susceptibility map to evaluate their environmental feasibility. We also evaluated the alternatives from an economic perspective using a model for conducting cost estimates of the forest roads. Our results show that this approach is useful for identifying the alternative that meets environmental and economic goals. The policy implications of this study suggest that if the development of road networks in mountainous areas is an important forestry goal, mechanisms should be aimed primarily at controlling slope instability.     

Striving for PAR excellence in land use planning: Multi-stakeholder collaboration on customary forest recognition in Bulukumba,South Sulawesi

Decentralization has enlivened new, bottom-up approaches for forestry governance in Southeast Asia. In Indonesia, social forestry and adat (indigenous) rights have come to the fore. The landmark 2013 Constitutional Court decision MK35/2012 allows adat communities greater control over their traditional forest areas. MK35 is the subject of much attention in national debates on forest devolution, but many questions remain about implementation. This paper examines a unique case of MK35 implementation through a local regulation involving the Kajang adat community of Bulukumba, South Sulawesi. We highlight participatory action research (PAR) processes and methods, such as participatory mapping and survey “ground truthing,” which built consensus around vital, contentious policy questions such as the extent of the adat forest. Findings suggest that PAR, albeit time-consuming, is a robust approach for fostering complementarity between stakeholder groups and decision makers in bottom-up land use planning and management.     

Regional economic transformation: Changing land and resource access on the West Coast of New Zealand’s South Island

The West Coast region of New Zealand has experienced significant structural economic changes since the 1980s. These changes have been a result of state imposed land use restrictions that limited productivist activities such as logging and mining, which in turn have been overlain by the effects of changes in national and global resource demand. This has led to both job loss and local resentment to what is seen to be external political and environmental interference in the region. Such changes overlay on-going boom-and-bust cycles experienced in the region’s resource dependent communities and the state’s pursuit of neo-liberalism from the 1980s, leading to the loss of state support and employment in the region. Regional path-dependence and ‘lock-in’ centred on productivist activities and the slow realisation of the need to diversify the economy have not helped. The region has under-performed in comparison with national trends economically and demographically reflecting and reinforcing local path dependence. The gradual growth of the service and tourism economies marks a new use for land resources and slow structural economic change. However, in the absence of governance processes that allow for collaborative planning to resolve conflicts over future trajectories for the region, conflicts over land uses, resources and access are likely to persist.