Generalizing the Encounter--Norm--Crowding Relationship

Theory predicts that when encounters exceed a visitor's norm for seeing others, crowding will increase. This article examines this relationship using data from 13 different studies ( n = 10,697) that included both high- and low-density study sites, and 12 different activities. Measures of recreation encounters asked respondents to indicate the number of people they remembered seeing in different contexts. Crowding was measured using a 9-point Likert scale. An indicator of the individual's tolerance norm was obtained by asking respondents to specify the highest number of encounters they would tolerate for a given situation. As hypothesized, perceived crowding was significantly higher for individuals indicating more encounters than their norm ( t = 12.70, p < .001). Overall, when the number of encounters was less than the norm, crowding scores averaged 2.02 (i.e., Not at all crowded). When encounters exceeded the norm, respondents felt "Slightly" to "Moderately" crowded with an average score of 4.01. Measures of effect size indicated that the strength of this relationship could be characterized as medium ( r > .3 to r < .5, n = 35 correlations) to large ( r S .5, n = 29 correlations). This pattern of findings was also observed for three predictor variables: type of resource (backcountry versus frontcountry); type of activity (e.g., canoers, hikers, hunters, anglers); and type of encounter (conflict versus no conflict). By contrasting identical measures of the same concepts across a number of activities, resources, and evaluation contexts, the generalizability of the hypothesized relationship is more readily apparent.     

An Exploratory Study of the Complexities of Coping Behavior in Adirondack Wilderness

Recreation researchers have considered coping behaviors one possible explanation for wilderness recreationists' high overall satisfaction levels despite reports of visitor over-crowding and other social conditions exceeding acceptable levels. Studies of recreationists' use of behavioral coping and cognitive coping mechanisms have had mixed results. This study used field-based interviews and surveys to identify coping behavior by hikers in the wilderness areas of New York's Adirondack Park. Findings indicate that wilderness hikers develop complex and variable strategies of coping behavior to maintain multiple satisfactions.     

Social Values versus Interpersonal Conflict among Hikers and Mountain Bikers

Conflict has traditionally been defined in terms of goal interference (interpersonal conflict) where the physical presence of one individual or group interferes with the goals of another individual or group. Recent research has identified social values differences as an alternative explanation for conflict. Social values conflict can occur between users with different beliefs and values, even if there is no contact between them. This article builds on this conceptual distinction by examining social values and interpersonal conflict reported by hikers (n = 210), mountain bikers (n = 163), and those who participate in both activities (n = 400). Data for this article were obtained from onsite surveys. Respondents evaluated unacceptable behaviors associated with hiking and mountain biking. Across all three groups, less conflict was reported for hiking than for mountain biking. To the extent that conflict did exist for hiking, mountain bikers and dual-sport participants were more likely than hikers to report unacceptable behaviors. For evaluations of mountain biking behavior, hikers were more likely than mountain bikers to experience conflict, whereas dual-sport participants fell in between these two extremes. All three groups reported more interpersonal than social values conflict.     

‘Hike your own hike’: equipment and serious leisure along the Appalachian Trail

We use qualitative methods to extend the understanding of serious leisure among hikers, specifically by examining the processes of acquiring and adapting equipment during an Appalachian Trail (AT) thru-hike. By studying the process of preparing for and embarking on this 2000-mile long, 4–6 month hike, we examine how learning about equipment takes place in close physical and social proximity to other hikers. We find that as experience is gained, hikers use less equipment and adapt equipment they use to more closely meet their needs. Our results suggest that experienced thru-hikers use their knowledge and experience to substitute for equipment in a way that transcends their awareness of equipment.     

Predicting Behavioral Intentions to Comply with Recommended Leave No Trace Practices

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an extended version of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) for predicting backcountry visitors’ behavioral intentions to comply with recommended Leave No Trace practices. Once confirmed, factors predictive of behavioral intentions can be used to inform the development of more effective persuasive communication strategies and educational messaging. Study participants were overnight backcountry visitors to either Olympic National Park, Washington, or Glacier National Park, Montana. The final model explained over 44% of the variance in the dependent variable, but significant predictors differed between the two parks. Discussion is provided as well as suggestions for those charged with disseminating Leave No Trace messaging.     

Trend Analysis of Motivation-Based Clusters at the Chilkoot Trail National Historic Site of Canada

This study combines data from three cross-sectional surveys (1993, 1998, and 2004) to explore how hikers at the Chilkoot Trail National Historic Site of Canada were affected by the introduction of several restrictive management policies. The analysis revolves around motivation-based segments defined via one single principal component and cluster analysis over all three years of data. The results document similarities and differences between the three motivation-based segments over time and as a reaction to the restrictions. Clusters also differed in the reaction to indicator variables such as advance booking time, perceived management problems, encounters, and satisfaction. Future longitudinal data collections and investigations as part of visitor monitoring protocols are suggested.     

Variability of User-Based Evaluative Standards for Backcountry Encounters

Backcountry visitors are often surveyed regarding their personal evaluative standards (or norms) for acceptable levels of encounters with other groups. In this study, backpackers at Grand Canyon National Park were asked about the acceptability of encounters at several times: at home prior to their trip, once each day during their trip, and at-home after their trip. Thus it was possible to assess spatial and temporal variability within individuals, as well as variation among individuals, in both the ability to provide a personal evaluative standard about number of encounters and the standard provided. Results suggest that backcountry visitors differentiate between zones in the Grand Canyon backcountry managed to provide diverse settings, including visitor density. However, there was substantial variation in the standards provided both among individuals and over time within individuals.     

身体现象学视角下徒步旅游者Flow体验的生成与意义

近年来,在人文社会科学研究"身体转向"的背景下,微观身体逐渐成为窥探旅游体验的关键视角。文章基于身体现象学,构建了旅游者心流(Flow)体验生成与意义分析框架,利用参与式观察、深入访谈、感官民族志等方法对稻城亚丁徒步旅游者进行实证分析,研究发现:(1)徒步旅游者的旅游世界"知觉场"形成源于外部环境对其身体感觉、运动通道、多感官知觉等具身体验的不断刺激;(2)作为"具身-认知"的过程,徒步旅游者Flow体验生成源于技能与挑战的平衡,且主客互动推动旅游者获得新的认知体验;(3)徒步旅游者Flow体验的意义蕴含在具身实践的身体知觉与特定的社会情境之中,并通过主体知觉意识、情感体验、价值判别呈现;(4)Flow体验状态意味着幸福情绪的获得,最终给予真实自我和真实世界的价值判断。研究尝试从身体现象学视角出发,对体验领域的Flow体验进行研究,是对旅游体验研究话题扩展的有益尝试。     

Using Video Surveys to Access Dispersed Backcountry Visitors' Norms

Image Capture Technology (ICT), or the capture and editing of photographic images using microcomputers, has been used in a variety of settings to assess social and ecological impacts. This study illustrates the application of this technology in a VHS videotape survey designed to assess visitors' norms for varying numbers of watercraft, sounds from aircraft and motorized boats, and the acceptability of floating outfitting camps. Acceptability ratings for three setting contexts (access areas, attraction sites, and wild places) within Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, British Columbia, were evaluated. Methodologically, use of the videotape survey proved to be a cost effective vehicle in evaluating both sight and sound impacts. More than 75% of the respondents indicated that the images served as useful reminders of their visit and helped them articulate their norms. These normative standards were consistent with other studies conducted in backcountry areas. The implications of this technology for addressing natural resource management issues are discussed.     

Developing Standards for Trail Conditions Using Image Capture Technology

Abstract

This study compares normative standards for trail impacts measured using three alternatives suggested by the literature. During September and October 2002, data were collected from a survey of 281 day hikers at three trail locations in Mudeung-Mountain Provincial Park, Korea. For the overall photo evaluation method (OPEM), respondents were asked to rate the acceptability of bare soil area for each of a series of photographs. For the specific photo evaluation method-1 (SPEM-1), respondents were asked to select a photograph that illustrated the largest acceptable proportion of bare soil area from a series of 10 photographs. For the specific photo evaluation method-2 (SPEM-2), respondents were asked to circle a number representing the largest acceptable proportion of bare soil area on a scale after looking at three referent photographs. Aggregated normative standards varied somewhat for different measurement alternatives and trail locations. Although SPEM-1 was the easiest alternative for respondents, followed by SPEM-2 and OPEM, more respondents preferred OPEM and SPEM-1 compared to SPEM-2.     

Exploring Visitor Acceptability for Hardening Trails to Sustain Visitation and Minimise Impacts

Protected natural area managers are challenged to provide high quality recreation opportunities and ensure the protection of resources from impacts associated with visitation. Development of visitor use facilities and application of site hardening practices are commonly applied tools for achieving these competing management objectives. This study applies stated choice analysis to examine visitor opinions on acceptability when they are asked to make tradeoffs among competing social, resource and management attributes in backcountry and frontcountry settings of Acadia National Park. This study demonstrates that asking visitors about recreation setting attributes uni-dimensionally, a common approach, can yield less informative responses. Analyses that considered direct tradeoffs revealed more divergent opinions on acceptability for setting attributes than a unidimensional approach. Findings revealed that visitors to an accessible and popular attraction feature supported trail development options to protect resource conditions with unrestricted visitor access. In contrast, visitors to a remote undeveloped island expressed stronger support for no or limited trail development and access restrictions to protect resource conditions.     

Exploring Relationships Between Recreation Specialization,Restorative Environments and Mountain Hikers’ Flow Experience

This study explored the relationships between the perception of restorative natural environments, specialization in mountain hiking and flow experience. On-site interviews were conducted at mountain huts in the Salzkammergut, Austria, in 2009. The analysis of 369 hikers suggests that a relationship exists among recreation specialization, the perception of restorative environments and flow. With increasing specialization, people are more likely to experience flow. The restorative quality dimensions of “being away,” “fascination” and “compatibility” with the mountainous landscape were positive predictors of flow experience.     

Alone with others: The paradox of privacy in wilderness

Attitudinal studies of wilderness visitors have indicated that people seek opportunities to limit interaction with other visitors so as to achieve privacy and solitude. This conventional interpretation of wilderness recreation was evaluated by comparing measures of visitor attitudes and social behavior in the backcountry of Yosemite National Park. Results show no association between visitor attitudes toward crowding and observed social interaction or behavior to avoid such social interaction. These findings suggest that subjective responses of visitors measured by questionnaires and interviews are often of debatable validity. Greater validity can be achieved by avoiding reliance on common‐sense interpretations in theory formulation and by employing multiple measurement techniques.     

Perceptions of crowding and resource quality by early and more recent visitors

Abstract

Previous literature suggests that a recreationist's current evaluations of a natural setting are influenced by the conditions that existed during the individual's initial exposure to the environment. Given the rapid growth in backcountry use and the ecological impairments associated with this use, it follows that each new generation of visitors will experience a different set of initial conditions. This paper explores the relationship between the year boaters made their first trip to the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore and their current evaluations of the resource. Results indicate that those who made their first trip prior to the area's national designation, when use levels were lower, perceived significantly greater levels of environmental damage to the islands and evaluated perceived increases in visitor numbers more negatively than the more recent boaters. The implications of these findings for managing the recreational experience are discussed.     

Applying public participation GIS (PPGIS) to inform and manage visitor conflict along multi-use trails

Managing visitor conflict is an important task in protected areas. This study used public participation GIS (PPGIS) mapping and a visitor survey to research conflicts between mountain bikers and horse riders, and other groups frequenting trails for tourism and recreation in national parks in northern Sydney (Australia). The goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of the PPGIS for determining conflict locations, and to integrate stated reasons and conflict resolution measures in a model. The survey showed that 42% of mountain bikers and 69% of horse riders had experienced conflicts, with each other, motorbike riders, walkers/hikers and dog walkers. PPGIS effectively mapped concurrent usage intensity to predict potential conflict locations over a reasonably large study area thereby identifying trails of the greatest concern. PPGIS also offered high-quality GIS visualisation options, and the novelty of the PPGIS increased participant engagement. We evaluated PPGIS compared to questionnaire-based surveying, direct visitor observations, GPS tracking, traffic counters and cameras. Because visitor conflict occurs within a spatial context, conflict management will require greater spatial knowledge of visitor activity, which can be obtained through the innovative PPGIS mapping. A conflict model is presented that integrates this study's empirical findings on conflict reasons and resolutions with existing conflict theory.     

Remedy for modernity: experiences of walkers and hikers on Medvednica Mountain

Modern life is fraught with pressures and demands that compromise and interfere with the needs of the body. Exercising in leisure time offers many well‐documented mental and physical benefits to counter the strains of modern life – yet many choose to remain inactive. Our understanding of inactivity can be enhanced by more research into those who do undertake exercise in a variety of forms. The purpose of this study was to understand more about the experience of those who exercise in the natural environment, through hiking and walking on Medvednica Mountain Nature Park near Zagreb, Croatia. To this end we interviewed 122 hikers and walkers on‐site, asking general questions about the walking experience on Medvednica. The findings centre around three main experiences: (1) affinity with nature and the outdoors; (2) mental and physical benefits; and (3) interaction with others and development of self‐knowledge. Overall the participants appeared to have found a simple way to negate the impact of living in modern society. This research suggests that civic organisations should promote walking as a way of life.     

The Guided Hike in Banff National Park: A Hermeneutical Performance

Sharpley identifies the need to help the public adopt a new paradigm of sustainable development through learning and understanding. The example of a guided hike in Banff National Park, Canada, that communicates to visitors ideas about sustainable development – and sustainable tourism – is examined in this paper to gain some sense of the world of the hike. The paper is based on a hermeneutical theatrical model derived from the philosophical hermeneutics of Gadamer, which includes play, festival, mimesis, gaze and beauty. Through the use of the model, the paper examines the present day performance of the hike, including the narratives of hikers and those involved in presenting the hike. The examination also includes relevant legislation, history and the setting. The result explores the nature and process of understanding a sustainable development paradigm on a guided hike in a natural protected area.     

Environmental Performance Reporting for Natural Area Tourism: Contributions by Visitor Impact Management Frameworks and Their Indicators

Environmental performance reporting is being increasingly demanded of many sectors of society, including those responsible for managing natural area tourism. Recent approaches include corporate reporting, state-of-the-environment reporting, and environmental management systems. This paper evaluates the usefulness of visitor impact management frameworks and associated resource and social indicators, both of which have a rich history of application to wilderness and backcountry management, for performance reporting on natural area tourism management. The evaluation draws on a recently developed evaluation framework for protected area management, plus detailed criteria, to address today's environmental performance reporting needs. Against these criteria, the visitor impact management frameworks rated well, with the Limits of Acceptable Change rating the highest. Resource and social indicators also showed great potential for performance reporting provided they are meaningful to senior managers, politicians and other stakeholders. Integrating these frameworks and their resource and social indicators into today's performance reporting, especially into state-of-the-environment reporting and environmental management systems, could significantly advance meaningful performance reporting for natural area tourism management.     

Predictors of Behavioral Loyalty Among Hikers Along the Appalachian Trail

In recent years, conceptual and empirical papers have begun to appear in the leisure literature examining the processes leading to the formation of recreationist loyalty. While this work is still in its infancy, current understanding suggests that leisure involvement plays a formative role in the development of social psychological commitment, which in turn, is an antecedent to loyalty to a brand or organization. In the context of natural resource-based recreation the concept of loyalty is most often used to refer to recreationists' attachments to specific recreation areas. The purpose of this paper is to provide an empirical examination of the first order structural relations among involvement (i.e., Centrality, Attraction, Self Expression), commitment (i.e., Social Investment, Financial Investment, Position Involvement, Informational Complexity, Volitional Choice), resistance to change (i.e., Activity Resistance, Place Resistance) and behavioral loyalty for hikers along the Appalachian Trail. These data provided partial support of our hypothesized model. The strength of the structural models varied and not all predictors were significant. Also, the valence of the dimensional relations varied. These data highlight several measurement related issues relating to each of the constructs modeled. These measurement issues inhibit progress toward a fuller understanding of the relationships between each of the constructs and their dimensions.     

Allocation currencies and perceived ability to obtain permits

Abstract

In an effort to understand how permit allocation systems affect different user groups, Stankey and Baden (1977) developed an evaluation scheme based on the idea of allocation currencies. Each allocation alternative is associated with a currency that pays the costs imposed by that system. This paper hypothesizes that those who have more of the relevant currency perceive that they have a greater likelihood of successfully obtaining a permit. This relationship is tested for five common allocation alternatives (pricing, reservation, lottery, queuing, and merit) with data from a sample of river runners in Hells Canyon. Results generally support the theory, and all but one of the hypothesized relationships were significant. Other currency variables also had significant effects, however, suggesting that the costs imposed by allocation systems are fairly complex. Implications for management are discussed.