Diverse approaches to consumer protection philosophy

The paper distinguishes different approaches to consumer protection theory, namely pre-interventionist, interventionist, and post-interventionist. Developed market economies are undergoing a mixed rationality of consumer protection based upon a certain level of acquis consummateur, especially with respect to information type remedies in consumer transactions. On the other hand, self-regulation as well as regulations based on a need concept have failed to be successful alternatives. Finally, the author discusses the consequences of an emerging body of autonomous consumer law for commercial transactions, representation of collective consumer interests, and environmental protection.

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Unterschiedliche Theorien zum Verbraucherschutz

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag unterscheidet drei unterschiedliche Theoriemodelle und Phasen von Verbraucherschutz: vor-interventionistisch, interventionistisch, und nach-interventionistisch. Entwickelte Marktwirtschaften zeichnen sich heute durch eine gemischte Rationalität aus, die ein bestimmtes Schutzniveau als gegeben hinnimmt, insbesondere im Bereich von informationsbezogenen Rechtsbehelfen. Auf der anderen Seite konnten sich andere Theoriemodelle, seien es solche einer Selbstregelung oder umgekehrt einer Bedürfnisorientierung, nicht durchsetzen. Der Beitrag diskutiert dann die Auswirkungen dieser Verbraucherschutztheorie auf das Handelsrecht, auf die Vertretung kollektiver Verbraucher-interessen, und auf deren Umweltverträglichkeit.

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Norbert Reich is Professor of Civil, Commercial, and EC Law at the University of Bremen, Universitätsallee, D-2800 Bremen 33, Germany, and at the time of writing Allen, Allen, & Hemsley Visiting Fellow at the University of Sydney Law School.The paper was originally presented to the Fourth Biannual Meeting of the International Academy of Commercial and Consumer Law, Melbourne, 23 to 26 August 1988. Upon suggestion of the Guest Editor, it was updated and amended without changing the basic argument.The author wishes to express his thanks to his colleagues Hans Micklitz, Lesley Jane Smith, and Gerlinde Thomann, Centre for European Legal Policy, for help in elaborating and editing earlier drafts of the paper. David Harland, University of Sydney, gave valuable suggestions in revising the paper. As usual, the responsibility for the paper rests exclusively with the author.     

Sustainable consumer empowerment through critical consumer education: a typology of consumer education approaches

It has always been assumed that consumer education serves the purpose of empowering people in their consumer role. This paper reviews the conventional understanding of consumer education and empowerment and then suggests an alternate approach. The argument is made for consumer education that helps people find their inner power and social potential to challenge the status quo, to change the system from a holistic perspective. Consumer empowerment of this type is totally self‐sustaining. Once learned, it cannot be unlearned. This form of sustainable consumer empowerment is the preferred direction for the future of consumer education.     

Can consumer interests really be incorporated into new marketing approaches?

In this paper a crucial guideline for new marketing approaches is examined using viewpoints found in critical theory. The first part of this paper discusses the function of goods in modern, late-industrial, and consumer society. The situation in which consumers interact is also briefly described, followed by an analysis of the social engineering of marketing approaches. Finally, some requirements for non-manipulative marketing perspectives are suggested.     

Celebrity influences on consumer decision making: new insights and research directions

ABSTRACT

Throughout human history, people have expressed admiration for heroes who possessed extraordinary abilities and achieved superhuman goals. For many, modern-day celebrities fulfil this role and are prominent in various marketing communications activities. This paper addresses the literature review gaps and provides an in-depth review of the psychological and social psychological perspectives which are relevant to the celebrity endorsement literature. The contributions of this paper consist of a detailed analysis of important types of consumer-celebrity relationships, key emotional drivers (e.g. envy and admiration) of celebrity influence and the development of an original conceptual model. The conceptual model pulls together the past research and identifies new research gaps, which synthesises different research perspectives and provides a sound theoretical basis guiding future researchers and marketing managers.     

Modelling real-time online information needs: A new research approach for complex consumer behaviour

Abstract

A major challenge for online vendor website operations is serving information that meets visitor needs at a given point in their purchase process. The problem arises from the complexity of human behaviour, as well as changing needs with the evolution of consumer knowledge and skills through the purchase process. The most difficult element, however, is determining the effects of information provided on the site, as well as from other sources that the consumer may access, and anticipating resulting consumer needs. This paper discusses the contributions and limitations of current modelling techniques and utility studies of online consumer information to model consumer needs in real time. An alternative basis for real-time customer need appraisal is proposed using clickstream and customer input data combined with online information utility to enable more effective information serving. This requires further academic research and changes in practitioner online marketing operations.     

Cooperatives and consumer research

The article asks the question why consumer researchers sometimes try to invent an organization to represent the consumer interest when there already is an existing organization with the required characteristics: consumer cooperatives. The advantages of having a consumer organization with its own production and distribution facilities are pointed out. The key role of consumer research to help realize the inherent possibilities of consumer cooperatives to become the main organization representing the consumer interest is stressed and some possible project ideas for research are formulated.

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Kooperative und Verbraucherforschung

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag geht aus von der Frage, warum Verbraucherforscher manchmal versuchen, eine Organisation zur Vertretung von Verbraucherinterssen zu erfinden, obwohl es mit den Verbraucher-Kooperativen bereits eine Organisationsform gibt, die im Prinzip die geforderten Eigenschaften hat.Der Beitrag beschreibt die wesentlichen Eigenschaften von Verbraucher-Kooperativen. Grundsätzlich ist eine solche Kooperative eine Gruppe von Verbrauchern, die praktische Demokratie in der Form pflegen, daß durch ständigen Dialog bestimmt wird, was zur Befriedigung der Bedürfnisse der Mitgliedshaushalte produziert und verteilt wird. Beispiele bestehender und entstehender Kooperative zeigen, welche Möglichkeiten diese Organisationsform für die Stärkung der Verbraucherposition birgt. Erste Forschungsergebnisse lassen vermuten, daß Verbraucher-Kooperative für Verbraucherforscher ein lohnendes Forschungsobjekt sein dürften, wenn es um die Erforschung wirkungsvoller Mittel zur Stärkung der Verbraucherposition geht. Der Beitrag schlägt nicht nur Fragestellungen und Ideen für Forschungsprojekte vor, sondern diskutiert auch die normative Grundlage solcher Projekte.Ziel ist dabei die Entwicklung solcher theoretischer Ansätze, Konzepte und Aktionsforschungs-Vorhaben, die Verbrauchern dazu verhelfen, in der Organisationsform der Kooperative durch Diskussion die optimalen Wege zur Bedürfnisbefriedigung zu finden. Wenn sich Verbraucherforscher an solchen Projekten beteiligen, könnten sie zu einem Schlüsselfaktor für die Entwicklung der Verbraucher-Kooperative zu einem der wichtigsten Mittel zur Förderung des Verbraucherinteresses in der Gesellschaft werden.

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Kai Blomqvist is Programme Director at the Swedish Cooperative Institute, Box 15200, S-104 65 Stockholm, Sweden, and Main Secretary to the Government Commission for the review of public consumer policy in Sweden.     

Ernest Dichter and motivation research: new perspectives on the making of post-war consumer culture

Advertising as a proportion of national income rose from the late 1940s and peaked in the mid-to-late 1950s. This growth however exhibited inflection points in 1949 and 1951 which coincided with political economy shifts. During this period of growth all sectors producing consumer goods increased expenditure on advertising; expenditure on advertising by the tobacco, and the clothing and footwear sectors rose the most relative to consumer spending on these product categories. From the mid-1950s, advertising of household goods, a category which included electrical durables and furniture, rose at the fastest rate.     

Conceptualizing and measuring consumer social responsibility: a neglected aspect of consumer research

Despite the availability of extensive research on a wide range of consumer‐related areas, some socially sensitive consumer issues have still remained relatively unexplored. Since literature review revealed a gap in the conceptualization of consumer social responsibilities, this article conceptualized, developed and validated a measurement scale for consumer social responsibility (CnSR), using a rigorous methodology suggested in the scale development literature. The study responded to the scholarly calls for further research in this area. Using a total sample of 491 respondents (53 respondents for pilot, 207 for exploratory survey and 231 for confirmatory survey), the study proposed a six‐dimensional measurement scale for CnSR, including: (1) social impacts, (2) solidarity, (3) critical appraisal, (4) supporting business growth, (5) environmental impacts and (6) action. It is argued that with ever growing impacts of corporate social responsibility on business practices, the validated measurement scale will contribute to the advancement of research in this nascent consumer area.     

Using current consumer issues to involve students in research

The value of involving students in research has been well documented. By including students in research, active and independent learning opportunities are provided, the importance of inquiry and investigation is emphasized, and connections between course material and the discipline become evident. Relevant opportunities for involving students in research projects can sometimes be elusive. Faculty time constraints limit the number of projects that can be undertaken and the number of students involved. Furthermore, many students become intimidated when told that they are required to carry out a research project. The purpose of this study was to use current consumer issues to involve undergraduate students in a relevant research project. The research project was implemented in class settings with teams of students. Faculty selected contemporary consumer issues based upon perceived student interest and experiences as consumers. By using issues of high relevance and familiarity to students and using the team approach within a course that faculty members were already assigned to teach, the issues of time constraint for the faculty members and increased levels of comfort for students were addressed. Prior to undertaking the project, students were instructed in appropriate research methods. Research methods utilized included student development of survey instruments, collection and recording of data, interpretation of data and presentation of results. Students became familiar with various research practices. By working as team members, the students’ comfort level for being involved in research increased; however, other common group challenges arose. Relevant, contemporary consumer issues carry high relevance and interest for student groups, helping generate enthusiasm for the research process. The focus on involving students in research continues to be emphasized. By using research topics related to student's experiences as consumers, students are more readily engaged in undertaking research projects. Through these relevant research projects, students’ consumer decision making is positively impacted.     

Alternative measurement approaches to consumer values: The list of values and the rokeach value survey

Two methods of measuring consumer values, the List of Values and the Rokeach Value Survey, are compared. Both involve some social desirability responding but both have convergent, discriminant, and empirical validity for consumer research. The List of Values may be preferable for some types of research because it detects more daily influence in people's lives and because it is simpler to administer.     

Fashion: a new paradigm of consumer behaviour

In clothing markets, ‘fashion’ has traditionally been defined as something that is accepted by a sizeable proportion of a market. This paper is based on empirical research amongst over 500 students investigating a variety of dimensions of ‘fashionability’. The findings support the ‘outer-directedness’ of ‘prevailing styles’ but also identify a potentially important set of ‘individualistic’ influences. It is suggested that this indicates the necessity for a redefinition of what is fashionable, and an explanation is offered for the apparent contradictions in current thinking about fashionability.     

From an information consumer to an information author: a new approach to business intelligence

ABSTRACT

Self-Service Business Intelligence (SSBI) enables business users, such as executives, managers, analysts, and knowledge workers to build reports on a need-basis to support their decisions and actions toward business success. This suggests that business users are empowered not only to consume information but also to author it. Yet, research on SSBI is mainly concentrated at the industrial level, and furthermore little is known on the way SSBI is changing the current state of BI. To address this lack of knowledge, this study explores the attributes of SSBI that are necessary to extend the role of a business user beyond that of an information consumer by drawing on the literature of Self-Service Technologies (SST). This study provides a new definition of SSBI as a new approach to BI. Furthermore, it highlights the duality of high levels of co-production and low levels of dependency as key to the SSBI approach.     

How to maintain sustainable consumer behaviours: A systematic review and future research agenda

Maintaining sustainable consumer behaviours is necessary for both mitigating environmental problems and the success of sustainable businesses. However, to date, the focus is mainly on the motivation-adoption link (i.e., how to motivate sustainable consumer behaviours) rather than the adoption-continuance link (i.e., how to maintain those behaviours). This study addresses the link between sustainability adoption and continuance, through a structured literature review. Specifically, this study synthesizes what is (and is not) known about the post-adoption (continuance) stage of the sustainable consumer journey, by reviewing and integrating the results of 87 articles. This review has three key outcomes. First, it elaborates on the importance and distinction of the continuance stage, which is predicted by a set of different and ‘evolving’ factors, compared with motivation and initial adoption. Second, the key components of the continuance stage are identified and grouped under (I) post-adoption cognitive perceptions, (II) emotional outcomes, and (III) subsequent behavioural patterns of (dis)continuance, spillover, advocacy, loyalty and habit formation. Third, this study introduces the concept of sustainable consumer behaviour continuity and discusses theoretical relationships in a conceptual framework. Finally, this review identifies knowledge gaps and provides research directions as well as implications for theory and practice.     

The use of the consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity scales in Iran: A research note

This research note presents the results of testing the reliability of two constructs from the country‐of‐origin literature—consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity—within the Iranian national consumer environment. Consumer ethnocentrism, developed by Shimp and Sharma (1987), measures the level of consumer ethnocentrism and has been used broadly in several countries. The consumer animosity scale (Klein, Ettenson, & Morris, 1998), a newer construct, has not been widely tested for its reliability in diverse national contexts. The country of Iran, with its ongoing dispute and hostility with the United States, provides an ideal context to test both of these constructs. We utilized the original animosity scale and an adapted version of the ethnocentrism scale. Both scales performed well and provide strong support for the reliability of each construct, allowing other researchers a high degree of confidence in their application. This finding suggests that these research tools may be useful and can be expanded to the greater Middle East region. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Doing sensory ethnography in consumer research

This paper is a contribution to sensory‐aware cultural consumer research. It suggests that while the audio‐visual domain is unquestionably a crucial ingredient of contemporary consumer culture, there is a pressing need to explore the role of the other senses as well. The study works towards a practice‐based culturalist approach to sensory ethnography, a perspective that allows consumer scholars to empirically account for the cultural aspects of the senses. Through an empirical case study on sport fishing, the paper scrutinizes the challenges and opportunities related to conducting sensory ethnography. In addition, it discusses the benefits of this approach in consumer research.     

Description of consumer spatial behaviour: a new approach

In the suburbs of most large French urban centres there are several hypermarkets. This type of trade has developed to such an extent that competition among these stores has become very fierce, so that they are now seeking to optimise the geographical distribution of their marketing operations. We propose a graphic method to describe consumer spatial behaviour. The model is based on the representation of the level curves of the area of attraction; this is estimated on the basis of frequency measurements taken in a group of geographical sectors in the region under examination. We apply this method to six hypermarkets in a large town in the north of France and show how it can be used to pick out the really competitive areas.     

Restraining Unions' industrial action: A new consumer right

This paper discusses the revolutionary new right introduced by the Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act 1993 for consumers to seek a court order to halt unlawful industrial action which disrupts the supply of goods or services, regardless of whether they have any enforceable right to the goods or services in question. Even more unusually, public funding is available to conduct these proceedings irrespective of the applicant's means where the industrial action is organised by a trade union. The paper analyses the nature of the right, locates it within the broader framework of remedies for the non-provision or inadequate provision of goods or services, and assesses the wider implications of the right for consumer policy.