Convergence in Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Emissions Among G7 Countries: A TAR Panel Unit Root Approach

The subject of this paper is the examination the convergence of per capita carbon dioxide emissions of the G7 countries during the 1960–2005 period in a nonlinear panel analysis framework. In this approach, first the linearity of the series was tested, and when the linearity was rejected, the threshold autoregressive (TAR) panel unit root test, which splits the data into two regimes, was employed to examine the stationarity properties of the series. Because the null of linearity was rejected in the first step, we tested the stationarity of the series using the TAR panel unit root test. In the TAR panel unit root test, we found that the United Kingdom was the transition country whose per capita carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions determined the switch from one regime to the other. The results showed that convergence existed in the first regime and divergence, in the second. When we tested whether absolute or conditional convergence existed, we found that the per capita CO₂ emissions were conditionally converging in the first regime.     

Club Convergence in Carbon Dioxide Emissions

We examine convergence in carbon dioxide emissions among 128 countries for the period 1960–2003 by means of a new methodology introduced by Phillips and Sul (Econometrica 75(6):1771–1855, 2007a). Contrary to previous studies, our approach allows us to examine for evidence of club convergence, i.e. identify groups of countries that converge to different equilibria. Our results suggest convergence in per capita CO₂ emissions among all the countries under scrutiny in the early years of our sample. However, there seem to be two separate convergence clubs in the recent era that converge to different steady states. Interestingly, we also find evidence of transitioning between the two convergence clubs suggesting either a slow convergence between the two clubs or a tendency for some countries to move from one convergence club to the other.     

Regional income inequality in China revisited: A perspective from club convergence

Growing income inequality in China has elicited considerable concern, and consensus has not been reached regarding whether regional income converges into one common steady state. The controversy may be attributed to the various definitions and methodologies for testing convergence. This study analyzes regional income inequality and convergence in China from the perspective of club convergence proposed by Phillips and Sul (2007). Instead of one convergence at the national level, we determine that provincial incomes are converging into two clubs: seven east-coastal provinces (Shanghai, Tianjin, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Shandong, and Fujian) and Inner Mongolia are converging into a high income club, and the remaining provinces are converging into a low income club. In addition, we obtain strong evidence that income inequality within a club decreases, while that between clubs deteriorates over time. Between-club inequality is associated with investment in physical and human capital, as well as population growth rates.     

Convergence of per capita sulphur dioxide emissions across US states

This study examines the stochastic conditional convergence of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions using the Residual Augmented Least Squares–Lagrange Multiplier (RALS–LM) unit root test with structural breaks. This procedure allows the data to account for trend breaks and nonnormal errors that have been ignored or deemphasized in previous studies. The study finds that per capita sulphur dioxide emissions exhibits stochastic conditional convergence across US states.     

Stochastic Divergence or Convergence of Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Re-examining the Evidence

This paper revisits the time-series literature on the convergence of per capita carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and examines the robustness of previous results. Using a sample of OECD countries for the period 1950–2002 we employ a battery of stationarity and unit root tests including those that allow for cross-sectional dependencies within the panel. We also correct for inaccuracies in previous studies that could result in a trend-stationary series being labelled as converging even if it were actually diverging from the international average. The body of evidence provided by our analysis suggests that per capita CO₂ emissions have not converged among OECD countries during the period under consideration. This finding is of importance to both climate change policy makers and to those who construct climate change models.      

中国碳强度分布的地区差异与收敛性——基于1995-2009年省际数据的实证研究

通过利用IPCC的方法,估算1995-2009年中国省际二氧化碳排放量,并运用泰尔指数及其分解方法,对我国碳强度分布的地区差异进行测度并按照东、中、西、东北四大区域进行了结构分解;同时借鉴经济增长理论中的收敛性检验方法,对我国碳强度的区域差异进行了收敛性检验。研究发现:(1)从总体上看,中国碳强度的分布存在明显的区域差异,而且差异主要是来自于四大区域内部,其中中部地区对碳强度总体差异的影响最大,西部地区对碳强度总体差异的影响正在逐步加大。(2)运用面板数据和横截面数据的估计结果均显示1995-2009年中国碳强度的地区分布不存在绝对β收敛和条件β收敛,此外也无明显的σ收敛特征。以上结论表明中国碳强度水平不会自动降低到"稳态",政府对碳减排的政策干预将是必不可少的。     

Are CO2 Emission Levels Converging Among Industrial Countries?

Time paths of carbon dioxide emissions intwenty-one industrial countries are examinedfrom 1960–1997 to test for stochastic andconditional convergence. Both panel unit roottests and cross-section regressions areperformed. Overall, we find significantevidence that CO₂ emissions haveconverged.     

Testing for Convergence in Carbon Dioxide Emissions Using a Century of Panel Data

This paper tests the convergence in per-capita carbon dioxide emissions for a collection of developed and developing countries using data spanning the period 1870–2002. For this purpose, three recently developed panel unit root tests that permit for dependence among the individual countries are employed. The results lend strong support in favor of convergence for the panel as a whole. Estimates of the speed of this convergence is also provided.      

Convergence behavior of carbon dioxide emissions in China

In view of global warming, the concept of a low carbon world economy has been brought to center stage. In this paper, a systematical empirical investigation of the convergence behavior of carbon dioxide emissions in China is conducted based on provincial data for the period of 1995–2011. Using the log t test developed by Phillips and Sul (2007), evident divergence at the country level and convergence to three steady state equilibriums at provincial level was identified. Furthermore, estimates from the ordered logit model uncover important determinants underlying the formation of clubs, including the per capita GDP, energy consumption structure, energy intensity, and initial levels of economic development. The results from this study contribute to a more in-depth understanding of the carbon dioxide emissions status quo in China and serves as reference when launching region-based emissions mitigation policies.     

Regional convergence clubs in Europe: Identification and conditioning factors

The aim of this paper is to empirically identify convergence clubs in per capita incomes of European regions and to investigate whether initial conditions − as suggested by the club convergence hypothesis − are responsible for club formation. To tackle this issue, we propose a two-step procedure in which we first endogenously identify groups of regions that converge to the same steady state level, and in a second step we investigate the role of starting conditions and structural characteristics for a region's club membership. Our sample comprises 206 European NUTS2 regions between 1990 and 2002. The results strongly support the existence of convergence clubs, indicating that European regions form six separate groups converging to their own steady state paths. Moreover, estimates from an ordered logit model reveal that the level of initial conditions such as human capital and per capita income plays a crucial role in determining the formation of convergence clubs among European regions.     

Convergence in Income Inequality: Further Evidence from the Club Clustering Methodology across States in the U.S.

This paper contributes to the sparse literature on inequality convergence by empirically testing convergence across states in the U.S. This sample period encompasses a series of different periods that the existing literature discusses -- the Great Depression (1929–1944), the Great Compression (1945–1979), the Great Divergence (1980-present), the Great Moderation (1982–2007), and the Great Recession (2007–2009). This paper implements the relatively new method of panel convergence testing, recommended by Phillips and Sul (2007). This method examines the club convergence hypothesis, which argues that certain countries, states, sectors, or regions belong to a club that moves from disequilibrium positions to their club-specific steady-state positions. We find strong support for convergence through the late 1970s and early 1980s, and then evidence of divergence. The divergence, however, moves the dispersion of inequality measures across states only a fraction of the way back to their levels in the early part of the twentieth century.     

京津冀协同发展复合式区域性碳市场体系研究

京津冀及周边地区的碳排放使本区域大气污染更加严重,控制碳排放是防治大气污染的重要举措。在区域大气污染需要统一治理的前提下,基于本区域各行政区成员处于不同碳排放发展阶段的现实背景,通过科学定位市场功能,明确各阶段的主要任务,实行总量控制,健全市场结构,重视管制机制和完善配套措施等方法,建立复合式区域性碳市场体系。     

Income convergence among U.S. states: cross‐sectional and time series evidence

We perform convergence tests on the U.S. states for per capita income from 1930 to 2009. Cross‐sectional tests support overall σ‐convergence and β‐convergence but may not hold true for the last three decades. Time series tests suggest that about half of the states exhibit stochastic convergence and of these all are also β‐converging. Probit regressions reveal that the likelihood a state is converging is a function of changing capital to labour ratios, the size of the agricultural sector, and levels of taxation and tax revenue. Regional disparities in convergence remain among the southern and midwestern states.     

Are state–local government expenditures converging? New evidence based on sequential unit root tests

Large and persistent gaps in subnational public expenditure have important implications regarding growth, equity, and migration. In this context, we revisit the question of expenditure convergence across the American states to provide more nuanced evidence than found by a small number of previous studies. We employ a methodology due to Smeekes (Bootstrap sequential tests to determine the stationary units in a panel, 2011) that sequentially tests for unit roots in pairwise (real per capita) expenditure gaps based on user specified fractions. In a panel of 48 combined state–local government units (1957–2008), we found that expenditures on highways, sanitation, utility, and education were far more convergent than expenditures on health and hospitals, police and fire protection, and public welfare. There was little evidence of “club convergence” based on the proportion of intraregional convergent pairs. Several historically high-grant receiving states showed relatively strong evidence of convergence. Our results bode well for future output convergence and opportunities for Tiebout-type migration across jurisdictions. They also imply a diminished role for public infrastructure and education spending in business location choices over time and a mixed role for federal grants in inducing convergence.     

The causal dynamics between renewable energy,real GDP,emissions and oil prices: evidence from OECD countries

This study extends the empirical literature on the determinants of renewable energy consumption in the case of 25 OECD countries for the period 1980–2011. Preliminary analysis suggests the presence of cross-sectional dependence within the panel data. As a result, second-generation panel unit root tests of Smith et al. (2004) and Pesaran (2007) are undertaken to find the respective variables that are integrated of order one. Panel cointegration and error correction modelling reveal that a long-run relationship exists between renewable energy consumption per capita, real GDP per capita, carbon dioxide emissions per capita and real oil prices. The long-run elasticity estimates are positive and statistically significant for real GDP per capita, carbon dioxide emissions per capita and real oil prices. The panel error correction model shows that a feedback relationship exists among the variables.     

A Test for Parameter Homogeneity in CO<Subscript>2</Subscript>Panel EKC Estimations

This paper casts doubt on empirical results based on panel estimations of an “inverted-U” relationship between per capita GDP and pollution. Using a new dataset for OECD countries on carbon dioxide emissions for the period 1960–1997, we find that the crucial assumption of homogeneity across countries is problematic. Decisively rejected are model specifications that feature even weaker homogeneity assumptions than are commonly used. Furthermore, our results challenge the existence of an overall Environmental Kuznets Curve for carbon dioxide emissions.     

The environmental Kuznets curve after 25 years

The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) has been the dominant approach among economists to modeling aggregate pollution emissions and ambient concentrations over the last quarter century. Despite this, the EKC was criticized almost from the start and decomposition approaches have been more popular in other disciplines working on global climate change. More recently, convergence approaches to modeling emissions have become popular. This paper reviews the history of the EKC and alternative approaches. Applying an approach that synthesizes the EKC and convergence approaches, I show that convergence is important for explaining both pollution emissions and concentrations. On the other hand, economic growth has a strong positive effect on carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and industrial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but weaker effects on non-industrial GHG emissions and concentrations of particulates. Negative time effects are important for sulfur and industrial and non-industrial GHG emissions. Even for particulate concentrations, economic growth only reduces pollution at very high income levels. Future research should focus on developing and testing alternative theoretical models and investigating the non-growth drivers of pollution reduction.     

Nonlinearities in economic growth and club convergence

This paper deals with heterogeneity and nonlinearities in the growth process by developing a two-stage strategy to identify and estimate a club convergence model with threshold externalities. Because of identification and collinearity problems, we develop an entropy-based estimation procedure which simultaneously takes account of ill-posed and ill-conditioned inference problems. First, clubs are identified by introducing a mapping structure in a conditional convergence model. Finally, we estimate a multiple club convergence model, where clubs correspond to subsets of total observations. Our procedure is applied to assess the existence of club convergence for a large sample of countries (1965–2008).     

Are Indian States Converging in the Post-Reform Period?: An Empirical Inquiry

This paper studies the convergence phenomenon for 23 states of India for the period 1981 to 2001. The decades of the 1980s and the 1990s has been studied separately to comment on the convergence behaviour in the pre reform and post reform period. In addition to that of per capita SDP, convergence of per capita output emanating from the agriculture, industry and the services sector has been analysed to get a deeper insight. Both sigma (σ) convergence and beta (β) convergence have been examined. The study finds absence of sigma (σ) convergence and unconditional beta (β) convergence of per capita NSDP both in the 1980s and 1990s. However, conditional beta (β) convergence estimates reveal that the poorer states are catching up with their richer counterparts in the 1990s. The panel GMM estimates reveal that Indian states converged to their steady state output at a higher rate in the 1990s compared to the 1980s. At the sectoral level, Industry had a higher speed of convergence than agriculture in both decades. Further, divergence rather than convergence is observed for the services sector in both decades.

     

科技创新、产业结构升级与碳排放的传导效应 ——基于半参数空间面板VAR模型

为了实现碳减排目标和碳中和愿景,在中国30个省市的面板数据基础上,构建半参数空间面板向量自回归模型（SSPVAR）,利用脉冲响应函数和导数散点图实证分析了科技创新、产业结构合理化和产业结构高级化、碳排放之间的双向空间传导效应,以及环境规制的非线性影响。结果表明：（1）科技创新、产业结构升级和碳排放之间存在时间滞后效应和空间传递效应。科技创新和碳排放存在显著的正向自强化效应和正向空间溢出效应,而产业结构合理化和产业结构高级化存在负向空间溢出效应。（2）科技创新促进本地和邻地产业结构合理化和产业结构高级化,但是产业结构合理化和产业结构高级化均对本地和邻地的科技创新产生不同程度的时间滞后性的抑制作用。（3）科技创新减少本地二氧化碳排放,但不利于邻地的碳减排;产业结构合理化和产业结构高级化有利于邻地碳减排,但增加了本地的二氧化碳排放,且产业结构高级化的碳减排效应比产业结构合理化更显著。（4）环境规制对科技创新、产业结构升级、碳排放都存在显著的非线性影响。