从创业导向到跨国创业导向:一个文献综述

中国企业的国际化战略,已逐渐聚焦于"在全球范围创造新的价值",其实质正是一种跨国创业行为,传统的围绕动机、阶段、模式展开的国际化理论已不足以解释及指导中国企业的国际化实践。本文从"创业导向的定义和维度"、创业导向维度和组织绩效的测度方法,创业导向与组织绩效的关系、"跨国创业导向"等四方面对国内外相关研究进行了综述。并指出现有跨国创业导向研究存在"套用封闭环境下的创业导向研究框架"、"未区分不同规模、不同发展阶段国际化企业的跨国创业导向差异"、"对时滞因素和前因变量等缺乏关注"等不足之处。     

Corporate social responsibility as cultural meaning management: a critique of the marketing of ‘ethical’ bottled water

To date, the primary focus of research in the field of corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been on the strategic implications of CSR for corporations and less on an evaluation of CSR from a wider political, economic and social perspective. In this paper, we aim to address this gap by critically engaging with marketing campaigns of so-called ‘ethical’ bottled water. We especially focus on a major CSR strategy of a range of different companies that promise to provide drinking water for (what they name as) ‘poor African people’ by way of Western consumers purchasing bottled water. Following Fairclough's approach, we unfold a three-step critical discourse analysis of the marketing campaigns of 10 such ‘ethical’ brands. Our results show that bottled water companies try to influence consumers' tastes through the management of the cultural meaning of bottled water, producing a more ‘ethical’ and ‘socially responsible’ perception of their products/brands. Theoretically, we base our analysis on McCracken's model of the cultural meaning of consumer goods, which, we argue, offers a critical perspective of the recent emergence of CSR and business ethics initiatives. We discuss how these marketing campaigns can be framed as historical struggles associated with neo-liberal ideology and hegemony. Our analysis demonstrates how such CSR strategies are part of a general process of the reproduction of capitalist modes of accumulation and legitimation through the usage of cultural categories.     

Opportunity recognition and international new venture creation in university spin-offs—Cases from Denmark and Ireland

Extant research suggests that the founder’s activities and interactions are considered pivotal in driving the opportunity recognition process leading to international new venture emergence. This paper aims to explore the opportunity recognition process and international new venture emergence in the context of university high-technology spin-offs that are internationally market driven from inception. University spin-offs (USOs) are defined as ‘new firms created to exploit commercially some knowledge, technology or research results developed within a university’ (Pirnay et al., Small Bus Econ 21:355–369, 2003). To address this inquiry, this study imports theory from the entrepreneurship literature on organizational emergence, opportunity recognition, effectuation and the principle of individual self-efficacy. Drawing on empirical case data from four case USOs from Denmark and Ireland, this paper finds that the inventor-founders are typically engaged in opportunity recognition processes that are characterized as creative, driven by scientific innovations. It is indicated that the process of USO emergence and continuous development involves activities and interactions similar to typical international new ventures. The scientific knowledge that created opportunities for the emergence of INV-USOs across our cases endorses the view that innovation and internationalization are strongly correlated. Insights are provided on inventor-founders’ entrepreneurial intention demonstrated through activities and interactions in the on-going processes of creating the USO. Findings further highlight that self-efficacy of the inventor-founder(s) and access to specific resources (means at hand) are salient determinants for international new ventures to materialize. The study concludes with a proposed conceptual framework for further research on the creation of INV-university spin-offs. Conclusions and implications are drawn at the end of the article.     

Across borders and beyond boundaries: How the Olivetti Company became a multinational

‘Ing. C. Olivetti & Co.’, the office machine producer founded in 1908, is one of the few Italian enterprises that was quick to set up a process of internationalisation both in European markets and in other continents. This article shows the evolution of Olivetti as a multinational business from its origins until the 1960s when the manufacturer was owned and controlled by the Olivetti family. It focuses on the role that ‘entrepreneurial cognition’ plays in shaping business as the company pursues new business opportunities across borders. It argues that the internationalisation of Olivetti was pursued in at least three ways: (1) as exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities in response to major historical events, local and global tensions; (2) as the result of entrepreneurial perceived high self-efficacy; and (3) as consequence of heuristic decision-making processes.     

Assessing the maturity of crowdventuring for corporate entrepreneurship

Corporate entrepreneurship is a process of strategic renewal and development of an existing business through the creation of new products, services, and activities, as well as new competitive postures and independent ventures. The performance of this process, which leverages the creativity and the initiative spirit of employees and managers, thus relies on the capacity of the organization to create favorable conditions for the emergence of such latent entrepreneurial potential. The development of participatory innovation models and collective intelligence offers new insights for conducting research on factors enabling corporate entrepreneurship. In particular, the internal company ‘crowd’ can be investigated with the purpose of studying the conditions under which the corporate entrepreneurship process can be successfully nurtured and conducted. In such view, this article moves from an extended review of corporate entrepreneurship and organizational innovation literature to define the concept of crowdventuring and to present an assessment tool aimed at evaluating the maturity of the crowdventuring process within an organization. The tool, which captures both individual and organization-related factors, is also used for an illustrative application into a multinational IT company. Some implications are drawn at the theory and practitioner levels.     

A structural model of the effects of entrepreneurial characteristics on venture performance

Venture capitalists, “angel” investors, and experienced, successful entrepreneurs, when asked to identify the most important determinant of new venture performance, will undoubtedly answer “the entrepreneur.” Likewise, prominent academic scholars responsible for the accelerating development of entrepreneurship theory and research would almost always agree. Unfortunately, empirical and theoretical understanding of the influence of the entrepreneur on new venture performance (NVP) has long been stymied. Studies of entrepreneurial characteristics have failed to demonstrate convincing links with entrepreneurial states of being or with NVP, though studies of the former have shown more promise than have those of the latter. In an attempt to explain the failure to link entrepreneurial characteristics with performance and thus to stimulate and modify research agendas, this paper derives a structural, causal model of the relationships between entrepreneurial characteristics and performance. This derivation draws upon current psychological, management, economic, and entrepreneurship theory.Though there is considerable controversy in the field of psychology concerning the ability of personality traits to explain behavior, it is accepted by many that such traits do exist, that they are stable over time, and that they explain behaviors if the level of aggregation is wide enough. In 1988, Hollenbeck and Whitener noted that one of the problems in using personality traits to explain job performance was that such traits are mediated by motivation and moderated by abilities in their causal connection to performance. Thus personality traits are somewhat removed from performance in the causal chain of events. Applied to the study of the entrepreneur, this research suggests that an initial model of the “entrepreneurial characteristics → NVP” relationship must include the mediating role of motivation and the moderating role of entrepreneurial management abilities.This paper further redefines this emerging model of “entrepreneurial characteristics → NVP” by drawing upon other literature from the field of psychology. This literature suggests that “entrepreneurial behavior” and the context in which it is performed both intervene between motivation and ability in their relation to NVP. The paper concludes this section with a psychology-based model of the “characteristics → NVP” relationship that is more comprehensive and realistic than prior models in the entrepreneurship literature.The paper next draws from strategic management, entrepreneurship, and economics literature along with Sandberg's (1986) model of NVP [NVP = f(E,IS,S)] to show that any model of the connection between entrepreneurial characteristics and NVP must further recognize the relationship between strategy and NVP as well as industry structure and NVP. The resultant model suggests strategy and industry structure are “context” variables that interdependently interact with entrepreneurial behaviors to influence NVP. This adaptation of the model is reinforced and expanded by reviewing the management literature on matching managers to situations which in turn implies that the effects of entrepreneurial behaviors on NVP are contingent upon strategy and industry structure. Thus strategy and industry structure, though ultimately determined by entrepreneurial behavior, are themselves important inputs to the behavioral context of entrepreneurship.The last part of the paper examines decision-making, skills, aptitudes, and training as components helping to refine our understanding of the role of motivation as a mediator and ability as a moderator in a model of the “entrepreneurial characteristics → NVP” relationship. The intent here is to identify specific variables that can be studied or acted upon [in an applied sense] to improve the NVP impact of entrepreneurial behaviors.It is hoped that explication of this model will encourage future entrepreneurship research that seeks to examine causes of NVP to reintroduce “the entrepreneur” as the focus or a focus of the research. Hopefully a more fully developed model that includes motivations, abilities, skills, aptitudes, and training as elements in “modeling” entrepreneurial behavior along with the need for strategy and industry structure contexts provides a more compelling and risk-worthy starting point for such research. This should provide an impetus to put the entrepreneur back. into a central position in entrepreneurship research, where both theory and practitioners say he/she belongs.     

Are international new ventures really new? A process study of organizational emergence and internationalization

Firm inception is integral to the definition of the ‘international new venture’/‘born global’, yet has received little attention. In line with entrepreneurship research, we propose that inception be analysed as a process of organizational emergence. By means of a qualitative process-based case study, we identify the key inception events of six SMEs that according to conventional definitions could be considered INVs/born globals. Organizational emergence occurred prior to, and continued beyond, the date of incorporation, and included international activities. We reconceptualize INVs as firms that internationalize during organizational emergence. Our explanation for the international activities of INVs therefore integrates internationalization and inception processes.     

Imprinting with purpose: Prosocial opportunities and B Corp certification

Certified B Corporations are ventures that have chosen to embrace third party voluntary social and environmental audits conducted by an entrepreneurial non-profit enterprise called B Lab. In this special issue, we focus on the lifecycle of Certified B Corporations and its relation to the entrepreneurial journey. We highlight research at the intersection of opportunities and prosocial certification to identify patterns and processes which add significant value to ongoing conversations in the field of entrepreneurship while charting new research pathways. We develop a framework of prosocial venturing and certification that pinpoints several elements of likely consequence and curiosity. This offers new insights about the entrepreneurial process that hint at the importance of opportunity, identity metamorphosis and sedimentation/superseding work. We thereby interpret how the exploration of prosociality may add to conversations on how and why ventures resist or embrace change over time, to what effect and ultimately, how opportunities may be reBorn.     

Revised CSI and Australian consumers: incorporating ‘innovation’ and ‘automobile purchases’

The first objective of this study was to identify Australian consumers' decision-making styles for automobile purchases. Second, adding an innovation consciousness scale to the original consumer styles inventory (CSI) to assess Australian consumers' car purchase behaviour. Based on a sample of 214 respondents from Australian automobile consumers, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on Sproles and Kendall's (1986) CSI adapted for automobile purchases. As such, the validity of the CSI in the context of high-involvement purchases was tested. The results found that only two factors, ‘brand’ and ‘habitual consciousness’, of the original model were retained and other factors such as ‘investigation process’, ‘information search’, ‘value within budget’ and ‘innovation consciousness’ factors were confirmed for automobile purchase decision-making styles. ‘Innovation consciousness’ was proven to be one of the most reliable and valuable scales for automobile purchase decision-making styles in relation to Australian consumers. The paper also discusses suitable marketing strategies for automobile consumers in Australia. The current research should prove valuable not only to academic researchers but also to automobile companies/managers. The findings will also provide insight into how automobile companies could position themselves with respect to their marketing strategies in Australia.     

Me,myself, and Ikea: Qualifying generic self-referencing effects in brand judgment

The present research extends previous work on the latent tendency to be attracted to objects, events and entities that are associated with the self by demonstrating when and how generic self-referencing brand names influence brand judgment. In five studies we hypothesize and find that using pronouns in brand names that refer to the consumer's self (i.e., ‘I’ or ‘my’ as in ‘iTunes’ or ‘MySpace’) produces an attraction effect and promotes favorable brand responses. The strength of the effect hinges on the extent to which the consumer's self-view is positive. In addition, we test a logical extension of the effect and show that attraction turns into avoidance when consumers' acute self-view is negative, particularly for products for which the association with the consumer's self is more salient, i.e., self-expressive products.     

Beyond ‘know-what’ and ‘know-how’ to ‘know-who’: enhancing human capital with social capital in an Australian start-up accelerator

Abstract

This study investigates the enhancement of human capital with social capital in a start-up accelerator and how this integration affects the entrepreneurial learning experience. In particular, it examines the relative importance of the three components ‘know-what’, ‘know-how’ and ‘know-who’. The study involved thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with participants in an Australian start-up accelerator that is delivered using ideas such as Design Thinking, the Business Model Canvas and Lean Start-up methodology. We find that although the programme emphasised ‘know-what’ and ‘know-how’, ‘know-who’ was most significant for participant learning. The results indicate that mentors and experts were especially helpful in shaping learning and in developing entrepreneurial networks. Moreover, our results show that the processes of ‘know-what’, ‘know-how’ and ‘know-who’ are interrelated – by knowing ‘who’, participants learnt ‘what’ and ‘how to’ through social learning. The research contributes to entrepreneurial learning theory and application particularly in the Asia Pacific context, by providing evidence that ‘know-who’ closes the learning loop for ‘know-what’ and ‘know-how’ as ‘know-who’ can actually provide entrepreneurs with the means to enhance their entrepreneurial self-efficacy.     

The influence of entrepreneurial marketing processes and entrepreneurial self-efficacy on community vulnerability,risk, and resilience

This paper uses the 2010/2011 Christchurch earthquake and re-development efforts as an exemplar to explore how entrepreneurial marketing processes combined with entrepreneurial self-efficacy can be leveraged to help a community reduce its vulnerability to natural disasters and enhance its resilience. Manyena's (Manyena, S. B. (2006). The concept of resilience revisited. Disasters, 30, 433–450; Manyena, S. B. (2012). Disaster and development paradigms: Too close for comfort? Development Policy Review, 30, 327–345) vulnerability–resilience theory is used as the conceptual framework to delineate the prophylactic benefits of building a community's entrepreneurial marketing process capabilities and the notion of entrepreneurial self-efficacy as defensive mechanisms to mitigate the effect of disasters. This work has resulted in an augmented disaster risk equation that considers: (1) the risk that a natural disaster poses on a community (as a function of the vulnerability of the community's tangible assets); (2) the hazard potential of the disaster; and (3) the resilience of its social and economic systems. This paper develops a measure of the symbiotic interrelationship of a community's entrepreneurial marketing process capabilities and community-level entrepreneurial self-efficacy to illustrate how leveraging the entrepreneurial, marketing, social, and engineering educational resources of a community can create a less vulnerable and more resilient community. In doing so, the paper develops a set of research propositions to guide future research and policy.     

Uncertainty,Learning and Error Elimination: Taiwanese Entrepreneurs in Mainland China

This article presents a dynamic model of the entrepreneurial process based on Weber's and Schutz's theories of human agency. It argues that human agents accumulate experience as they make sense out of their everyday business life. Experiences from everyday life are assembled into a stock of knowledge that can be used to interpret incoming events as well as problem solving. If incoming events are repeated and familiar, the entrepreneur can utilize the rule of thumb to solve problems without difficulties. If incoming events are novel, the entrepreneur's interpretative framework will fail to give an adequate account of the new situation. Encountering this situation, some agents may continue to use old methods to solve new problems. This response does not catch up with market's expectation and is doomed to fail. Most entrepreneurs will devise new methods to solve new problems by trial and error, and experimentation. They will cope with their knowledge deficiency by creating temporary expectations. This knowledge surrogate will be later tested in the market. If a new strategy works, then it will be adopted and further routinized as a rule of thumb. This theoretical framework is applied to Taiwanese entrepreneurs investing in mainland China. Two case studies in the food and catering industries are conducted. This article concludes that the theory of entrepreneurial process in terms of learning, experimentation, and revision of plans provides us with useful understanding of survival, growth, expansion of an enterprise.     

Internationalization and entrepreneurial orientation of family SMEs: The influence of the family character

Internationalization is an important entrepreneurial strategy for promoting the long-term growth and survivability of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Family involvement in top management teams (TMTs) can explain the heterogeneous behaviors of these firms’ international entrepreneurship process. This paper analyzes the moderating effects of the family’s influence on the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and internationalization with two TMT diversities found only in family firms: the family TMT ratio and generational involvement. An analysis of 191 Spanish family SMEs indicated that entrepreneurial orientation plays a significant role in explaining the degree of internationalization in family firms and that a diversely formed TMT shapes this relationship. A high concentration of family members in managerial positions hinders the international entrepreneurship process. This fact highlights the importance of hiring non-family managers to promote internationalization. The results also reveal that involving multiple generations in decision-making hampers entrepreneurial internationalization, generating control and coordination problems.     

An internalization theory perspective on the global and regional strategies of multinational enterprises

Many multinational enterprises (MNEs) claim to be pursuing a ‘global strategy’, but the majority of MNEs is not global, in the sense that these firms cannot emulate their domestic success outside of their home region. This inability is largely caused by compounded distance among regions and can be mitigated in part, by infusing a regional component into the MNE's international strategy. In this paper, we explore whether internalization theory can address the global versus regional strategy phenomenon. Specifically, we investigate whether internalization theory can predict under which circumstances MNEs will be able to pursue successfully a global strategy, and whether the theory can explain firm-level variations in utilizing regional components in international strategic governance. We argue that internalization theory can help regionalization scholars unbundle regional strategy by matching resource bundling needs with various firm-level resource recombination practices. We identify four distinct resource recombination processes with increasing complexity: fast bundling, principles-driven bundling, adaptive bundling and entrepreneurial resource orchestration, and argue that adopting the best-matched resource recombination practices will advance the MNE's success outside of its home region.     

University spin-off's performance: Capabilities and networks of founding teams at creation phase

The extant literature highlights that environmental conditions, during the creation phase, imprint on a start-up's survival and growth. However, there are few studies that explore the composite nature of a founding team's capabilities and networks, developed within this phase, and the contribution made to future performance. This paper uses the distinctive context of university spin-offs, where early stage ventures are fostered by institutional interventions, to analyse the influence that the capabilities and networks of a founding team, at incorporation, have upon the future performance of the spin-off. Based on data from 181 university spin-offs, this paper empirically demonstrates that the entrepreneurial capabilities of a founding team, augmented during the ‘creation’ phase, have a positive influence on the performance of a spin-off during the ‘growth’ phase, and that the networks of a founding team indirectly affect a spin-off's performance through the enhancement of a team's entrepreneurial capabilities.     

Entrepreneurship and well-being: Past,present, and future

Entrepreneurship research typically emphasizes firm-level outcomes such as growth and performance. However, people pursue entrepreneurship for deeply personal, idiosyncratic reasons. Therefore, as in other self-organized human pursuits, how entrepreneurship relates to fulfillment and well-being is of utmost importance. In this paper, we provide an overview of the well-being concept, related research, and its connection to entrepreneurship. We define entrepreneurial well-being as the experience of satisfaction, positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and psychological functioning in relation to developing, starting, growing, and running an entrepreneurial venture. We explain this definition of entrepreneurial well-being and review significant developments in our field and the broader field of well-being. Highlights of social, technological and institutional trends illustrate key areas for future research that can enhance our understanding of these phenomena. The eight papers in this special issue focus on entrepreneurial well-being each offering a specific perspective on how scholars can theorize and study the antecedents and consequences of entrepreneurship related to well-being.     

Progress without a venture? Individual benefits of post-disruption entrepreneuring

Entrepreneurial action only rarely results in the full transition to venture creation. Yet, extant research has focused almost exclusively on explaining how entrepreneurial action influences venture performance outcomes such as emergence and growth. Therefore, to advance theory, there is a need to uncover other outcomes of entrepreneurial action by decoupling it from venture creation. In this study, we begin such decoupling by exploring how entrepreneurial action can create individual benefits irrespective of venture emergence and financial success. We collected longitudinal data from a group of individuals who, due to forced migration, experienced significant disruption and then engaged in entrepreneurial action with the general goal of adapting to a new (to them) context. From this data, we integrated theory on entrepreneuring to develop a grounded model of post-disruption entrepreneuring. This model has three main components: (a) disruption assessment impact—interpretation of how the disruption will influence one's ability to pursue tasks and goals that provide meaning in life; (b) use of entrepreneuring—function and application of entrepreneuring activities in addressing opportunities or threats; and (c) projected goals—anticipated outcomes that provide meaning, motivation, and purpose. These attempts at assessing the contextual conditions provide individuals with an objective way of framing their situation. Thus, entrepreneuring can serve as an accessible mental structure that facilitates adaptation. In elaborating on post-disruption entrepreneuring, this study contributes to the literature by demonstrating the generative capacity of entrepreneurial action even in the absence of venture creation.     

“Alexafying” shoppers: The examination of Amazon's captive relationship strategy

The virtual assistants' market is drastically growing and is expected to reach $2.1 billion by 2020. Nonetheless, the quick expansion and high penetration of e-retailers’ AI ecosystem into the shopper's journey is still under-researched in the extant literature. Amazon's Alexa in particular has been fast proliferating into the customer's journey, favoring the development of captive audiences given this new ambient environment. Through a mixed methodology using both qualitative and quantitative approaches, this study examines Amazon's captive relationship strategy on shoppers, brands and competing retailers. The research findings show that Amazon's AI relationship strategy with its customers is based on forming a multi-faceted identity for the AI that would later on facilitate a captive situation that would lead to an addictive relationship. This study is amongst the first to examine the rapid development of e-retailers’ AI ecosystem into the shopper's journey. Taking the pioneering case of Amazon's Alexa powered devices, this research presents a working framework upon which scholars and practitioners alike could base their future studies and strategies on in the fast-growing field of interactive voice assistants and AI led conversations.     

The counter-conventional mindsets of entrepreneurs

These days, it seems, nearly everyone aspires to be an entrepreneur. But many entrepreneurs think and act differently than the way in which most other businesspeople do and the way much of today’s business education encourages them to think and act. My in-depth examination of dozens of entrepreneurs I’ve come to know well over the past 2 decades tells me that their unconventional—or, dare I say, counter-conventional—mindsets and behaviors are marked by six common patterns: (1) ‘Yes, we can;’ (2) beg, borrow, or steal; (3) think narrow, not broad; (4) problem-first, not product-first logic; (5) ‘No’ is something waiting to be turned into ‘Yes’; and (6) ask for the cash and ride the float. Thankfully, we now know that entrepreneurs are made, not born. These six patterns of entrepreneurial thought and action are eminently learnable. If you want to someday be an entrepreneur, or if you want the people in your company to become more entrepreneurial, then developing—or encouraging and incentivizing your people to develop—such a mindset might constitute a suitable first step toward preparing you to follow a more entrepreneurial path or to foster a more entrepreneurial culture in your company.