NO MARGINAL ARBITRAGE OF THE SECOND KIND FOR HIGH PRODUCTION REGIMES IN DISCRETE TIME PRODUCTION–INVESTMENT MODELS WITH PROPORTIONAL TRANSACTION COSTS

We consider a class of production–investment models in discrete time with proportional transaction costs. For linear production functions, we study a natural extension of the no‐arbitrage of the second kind condition introduced by Rásonyi. We show that this condition implies the closedness of the set of attainable claims and is equivalent to the existence of a strictly consistent price system under which the evaluation of future production profits is strictly negative. This allows us to discuss the closedness of the set of terminal wealth in models with nonlinear production, functions which may admit arbitrages of the second kind for low production regimes but not marginally for high production regimes.     

MULTIPLICATIVE APPROXIMATION OF WEALTH PROCESSES INVOLVING NO‐SHORT‐SALES STRATEGIES VIA SIMPLE TRADING

A financial market model with general semimartingale asset–price processes and where agents can only trade using no‐short‐sales strategies is considered. We show that wealth processes using continuous trading can be approximated very closely by wealth processes using simple combinations of buy‐and‐hold trading. This approximation is based on controlling the proportions of wealth invested in the assets. As an application, the utility maximization problem is considered and it is shown that optimal expected utilities and wealth processes resulting from continuous trading can be approximated arbitrarily well by the use of simple combinations of buy‐and‐hold strategies.     

The Division of Labor,Investment and Capital

A dynamic general equilibrium model based on corner solutions is used to formalize the classical theory of investment and capital which considers investment to be a vehicle for developing a high level of division of labor in roundabout productive activities. If it takes time for a specialist producer of tractors to learn the right method to produce commercially viable tractors, specialization in producing tractors is infeasible in the absence of investment in terms of consumption goods which are consumed by the specialist producer of tractors before he can sell tractors. If specialized learning by doing can speed up accumulation of professional knowledge so that roundabout productive machines become cheap, such investment for increasing the level of division of labor in roundabout productive activities will speed up economic growth. Because of the trade-off between economies of specialized learning by doing and transaction costs, the model can be used to investigate the effects of a change in the transaction cost coefficient, which can be affected by policy, the legal system and urbanization, on the evolution of the division of labor, on real interest rates and on the saving rate.     

Optimal consumption and investment under transaction costs*

In this paper, we consider the Merton problem in a market with a single risky asset and proportional transaction costs. We give a complete solution of the problem up to the solution of a first‐crossing problem for a first‐order differential equation. We find that the characteristics of the solution (e.g., well‐posedness) can be related to some simple properties of a univariate quadratic whose coefficients are functions of the parameters of the problem. Our solution to the problem via the value function includes expressions for the boundaries of the no‐transaction wedge. Using these expressions, we prove a precise condition for when leverage occurs. One new and unexpected result is that when the solution to the Merton problem (without transaction costs) involves a leveraged position, and when transaction costs are large, the location of the boundary at which sales of the risky asset occur is independent of the transaction cost on purchases.     

Opportunism and Long-Term Contracting: Transactions in Broken Hill Zinc Concentrates in the 1930s

The essay examines the design and operation of a long-term contract at the centre of the Anglo-Australian zinc industry during the 1930s. All the parties to this contract invested in durable assets that were highly specific to transactions in Broken Hill zinc concentrates. Under such conditions, according to transaction cost economics, an efficient contractual response would entail the vertical integration of exchange or, at the very least, some long-term arrangement under which the parties make sizeable credible commitments in support of exchange. The basis of the transaction cost argument is that such an arrangement is necessary to protect the parties against the risk of opportunistic behaviour by exchange partners. The contract examined here, however, did not possess such protective devices, yet, by all accounts, performed extremely well in the most testing of circumstances. Close analysis of the design and operation of this contract gives reason to question the generality of the transaction cost assumption that parties structure their institutional arrangements with a view to protect themselves against the hazards of opportunism. The parties to this contract did not anticipate a high degree of opportunism and this was reflected in the design of their contract. From the analysis of the way the contract actually operated it is clear that this expectation was more than justified and exchange in Broken Hill zinc concentrates was characterised by close co-operation and forbearance rather than opportunism.     

交易成本、法律传统与金融制度边界的决定

金融制度边界(或者结构)的决定是制度金融理论的一个核心问题,可是,不少文献对此问题的讨论从一开始就转向对不同金融体系结构以及绩效的简单刻画与比较。特别是,一度备受追捧的法金融学理论也深陷金融制度孰优孰劣判断的"陷阱"而难以自拔。因此,正确的理论选择就是重返制度边界决定的交易成本传统。本文的讨论发现,各国之所以拥有不同的金融制度边界,基本原因是其在利用金融市场和金融企业制度方面的"比较优势"存在差异;法律传统不可能抛开市场交易方式以及交易效率而直接决定金融制度边界。相比之下,文化渊源的重要性则体现在,它决定着交易成本的初始结构,并由此影响人们对交易方式或者交易制度的选择。     

SUPERHEDGING IN ILLIQUID MARKETS

We study superhedging of securities that give random payments possibly at multiple dates. Such securities are common in practice where, due to illiquidity, wealth cannot be transferred quite freely in time. We generalize some classical characterizations of superhedging to markets where trading costs may depend nonlinearly on traded amounts and portfolios may be subject to constraints. In addition to classical frictionless markets and markets with transaction costs or bid‐ask spreads, our model covers markets with nonlinear illiquidity effects for large instantaneous trades. The characterizations are given in terms of stochastic term structures which generalize term structures of interest rates beyond fixed income markets as well as martingale densities beyond stochastic markets with a cash account. The characterizations are valid under a topological condition and a minimal consistency condition, both of which are implied by the no arbitrage condition in the case of classical perfectly liquid market models. We give alternative sufficient conditions that apply to market models with general convex cost functions and portfolio constraints.     

Pricing executive stock options with averaging features under the Heston–Nandi GARCH model

In this paper, we focus on the pricing issue of four types of executive stock options (ESOs) in the Heston–Nandi generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity option pricing model. Based on the derived benchmark strike prices in the proposed framework, we obtain the closed-form pricing formulae for four types of ESOs. In the numerical part, we investigate the sensitivity and cost efficiency of ESOs and suggest that systematic risk (stock β) and the fraction of wealth invested in restricted stock could impede the cost efficiency of ESOs.     

MONOTONICITY PROPERTIES OF OPTIMAL INVESTMENT STRATEGIES FOR LOG-BROWNIAN ASSET PRICES

Consider the geometric Brownian motion market model and an investor who strives to maximize expected utility from terminal wealth. If the investor's relative risk aversion is an increasing function of wealth, the main result in this paper proves that the optimal demand in terms of the total wealth invested in a given risky portfolio at any date is decreasing in absolute value with wealth. The proof depends on the functional form of the Brunn–Minkowski inequality due to Prékopa.     

基于知识观的家族企业代际传承研究

从知识观这一视角,以9个家族企业为例,提出"代际之间关系、交接班的意愿与承诺、创新与创业活动、知识传递"概念框架,结合本土企业进行多重案例研究。总体上看,大多数创业者倾向于将事业传承给自己的子女而非外人,所以更加重视子女在知识和能力方面的培养。由于在知识结构、对已有事业的认知等方面存在差异,两代人之间产生了矛盾和冲突,而继承者在公司内部开展相对独立的创业活动则有助于创造新知识,提高继承父辈事业的能力,因而创新和创业活动是两代人事业传承的重要条件和保障。     

MULTIDIMENSIONAL PORTFOLIO OPTIMIZATION WITH PROPORTIONAL TRANSACTION COSTS

We provide a computational study of the problem of optimally allocating wealth among multiple stocks and a bank account, to maximize the infinite horizon discounted utility of consumption. We consider the situation where the transfer of wealth from one asset to another involves transaction costs that are proportional to the amount of wealth transferred. Our model allows for correlation between the price processes, which in turn gives rise to interesting hedging strategies. This results in a stochastic control problem with both drift-rate and singular controls, which can be recast as a free boundary problem in partial differential equations. Adapting the finite element method and using an iterative procedure that converts the free boundary problem into a sequence of fixed boundary problems, we provide an efficient numerical method for solving this problem. We present computational results that describe the impact of volatility, risk aversion of the investor, level of transaction costs, and correlation among the risky assets on the structure of the optimal policy. Finally we suggest and quantify some heuristic approximations.     

HEDGING AND PORTFOLIO OPTIMIZATION UNDER TRANSACTION COSTS: A MARTINGALE APPROACH12

We derive a formula for the minimal initial wealth needed to hedge an arbitrary contingent claim in a continuous-time model with proportional transaction costs; the expression obtained can be interpreted as the supremum of expected discounted values of the claim, over all (pairs of) probability measures under which the “wealth process” is a supermartingale. Next, we prove the existence of an optimal solution to the portfolio optimization problem of maximizing utility from terminal wealth in the same model, we also characterize this solution via a transformation to a hedging problem: the optimal portfolio is the one that hedges the inverse of marginal utility evaluated at the shadow state-price density solving the corresponding dual problem, if such exists. We can then use the optimal shadow state-price density for pricing contingent claims in this market. the mathematical tools are those of continuous-time martingales, convex analysis, functional analysis, and duality theory.     

Mapping the trading behavior of the middle class in emerging markets: Evidence from the Istanbul Stock Exchange

Predicted to grow above 4.9 billion by 2030, with an overall spending capacity of $56 trillion, the rise of the middle class in emerging markets has attracted global practitioner and academic attention. How this new wealth will be invested is a central question; yet our understanding still remains fragmented. Drawing on the literatures of international business, behavioral economics and finance and using high-frequency stock market data, we examine and map the trading behavior of the middle class in Turkey, one of the fastest rising economic powers of the East. We find that middle class traders exhibit discernible differences to professionals, with respect to risk attitudes and stock preferences (e.g. prefer lower-risk, smaller-size and ‘value’ stocks). In addition, while they typically hold small portfolios and tend to realize lower gains than professionals, their role has become considerably influential to the direction of the entire market.     

Asset specificity roles in interfirm cooperation: Reducing opportunistic behavior or increasing cooperative behavior?

Extant research offers two alternative mechanisms for relating the asset specificity of a cooperative relationship to partnership performance. Transaction cost economics argues that the specific assets invested in a partnership increase the hazards of opportunism. As firms select appropriate governance structures to reduce opportunistic behavior, performance increases. On the other hand, relational exchange theory suggests that asset specificity enhances the trust between partners, which in turn leads to more cooperative behavior and higher partnership performance. This paper tests both mechanisms simultaneously on a sample of procurement relationships between Hong Kong trading firms and their Chinese suppliers using SEM methods. Our results support the predictions of relational exchange theory more than those of transaction cost economics. The paper also discusses the role of the Chinese context on theory application.     

TRADING WITH SMALL PRICE IMPACT

An investor trades a safe and several risky assets with linear price impact to maximize expected utility from terminal wealth. In the limit for small impact costs, we explicitly determine the optimal policy and welfare, in a general Markovian setting allowing for stochastic market, cost, and preference parameters. These results shed light on the general structure of the problem at hand, and also unveil close connections to optimal execution problems and to other market frictions such as proportional and fixed transaction costs.     

MEAN–VARIANCE PORTFOLIO OPTIMIZATION WITH STATE‐DEPENDENT RISK AVERSION

The objective of this paper is to study the mean–variance portfolio optimization in continuous time. Since this problem is time inconsistent we attack it by placing the problem within a game theoretic framework and look for subgame perfect Nash equilibrium strategies. This particular problem has already been studied in Basak and Chabakauri where the authors assumed a constant risk aversion parameter. This assumption leads to an equilibrium control where the dollar amount invested in the risky asset is independent of current wealth, and we argue that this result is unrealistic from an economic point of view. In order to have a more realistic model we instead study the case when the risk aversion depends dynamically on current wealth. This is a substantially more complicated problem than the one with constant risk aversion but, using the general theory of time‐inconsistent control developed in Björk and Murgoci, we provide a fairly detailed analysis on the general case. In particular, when the risk aversion is inversely proportional to wealth, we provide an analytical solution where the equilibrium dollar amount invested in the risky asset is proportional to current wealth. The equilibrium for this model thus appears more reasonable than the one for the model with constant risk aversion.     

金融发展和经济增长:功能观与结构观的比较

金融功能观认为金融体系通过增强流动性、降低风险、监督经理与实行公司治理和动员储蓄等,降低信息成本和交易成本,提高储蓄向投资转化的效率。金融结构观指出不同的金融结构在不同的历史条件下,对经济增长的作用机制和效果可能也会有差异。功能观与结构观都在一定程度上解释了经济增长,但金融体系提供的金融功能具有不同的比较优势,不同的金融功能对经济增长的作用各异。金融体系是否推动经济增长取决于金融结构与实体经济的适应效率,在不同的发展阶段和国情条件下,只有适合经济发展的金融结构才能促进经济增长。     

Portfolio choices,Asset returns and wealth inequality: evidence from China

This paper empirically investigates the relationship between household porfolio choices and wealth distribution with micro-survey data in China. We show that due to decreasing relative risk aversion, the rich people tend to hold more complicated portfolios and own high-yield assets of stocks, housing and private businesses. As a result, the return for household portfolio increases with wealth, with the well-heeled gains more over the poor in the capital market. This therefore serves as a reason for wealth concentration and decrease of social mobility. Taxation on capital income slows down the growing process of inequality.     

交易成本:外包现象的一个解释视角

企业的外包决策实际上包含着对不同治理机制下的交易成本的比较和权衡。威廉姆森的交易成本框架的外包现象,能够最大限度地节省交易成本。企业基于生产成本和交易成本计算和比较应以外包关系治理作为企业在不同交易维度组合下的治理机制选择。