Consumer protection in Bangladesh: Law and practice

In the least developed third world countries, the most important consumer right is the right to satisfy basic needs.In this paper, the author describes the legal foundations for consumer protection in Bangladesh, foundations which attach the highest importance to the nutritional state of the people and to measures for protection of consumers from products, processes, and services which are hazardous to their health. Some of the laws are pre-1971, the year of independence of Bangladesh; others have been promulgated in more recent years, though not all of the latter have yet been fully implemented.The author also describes the history of the consumer movement in the country, and in particular the work carried out by the Consumers' Association of Bangladesh. The difficulties that consumer organizations meet in a country such as Bangladesh are multifold. Some of the most formidable problems have to do with the fact that legislation is scattered, that consumers themselves cannot initiate legal action against wrong-doers, and that public officials as well as political leaders are often unapproachable or more interested in caring for the interests of business.

---

Verbraucherschutz in Bangladesch: Rechtliche und praktische Situation

Zusammenfassung In den am wenigsten entwickelten Ländern der Dritten Welt ist das wichtigste Verbraucherrecht das Recht auf die Befriedigung der Grundbedürfnisse. Der Autor beschreibt die rechtlichen Grundlagen für Verbraucherschutz in Bangladesch, die der Ernährung der Bevölkerung und Ma\nahmen zum Schutz vor gesundheitsgefährdenden Produkten, Herstellungsverfahren und Dienstleistungen die höchste Bedeutung beimessen. Einige der Gesetze stammen aus der Zeit vor 1971, dem Jahr, in dem Bangladesch die Unabhängigkeit erlangt hat. Andere sind in jüngerer Zeit verkündet worden, wenn auch nicht alle bereits volle Gültigkeit erlangt haben. Der Autor beschreibt darüber hinaus die Geschichte der Verbraucherbewegung in seinem Land und zeichnet insbesondere die Arbeit nach, die von der Verbrauchervereinigung durchgeführt wurde. Die Schwierigkeiten, denen sich Verbraucherorganisationen in einem Land wie Bangladesch gegenübersehen, sind vielfältig. Einige der ernsterzunehmenden Probleme haben es mit der Tatsache zu tun, da\ die Gesetzgebung lückenhaft ist, da\ Konsumenten gegen Fehlverhalten nicht selbst rechtlich vorgehen können und da\ staatliche Stellen und politische Führer oft unerreichbar sind und im übrigen mehr im Interesse der Unternehmen tätig sind.

     

Consumer Protection Act, 1986: Law and policy in India

India passed its new Consumer Protection Act in 1986. The author points out that the Act is a landmark in the history of the consumer protection movement in India. It concerns mainly the regulation of consumer disputes and creates specific redress agencies at district, state, and Union level. It also contains general provisions for consumer rights and for the organization of the consumer interest.

---

Verbraucherschutzgesetz 1986: Recht und Politik in Indien

Zusammenfassung Nach Meinung des Autors handelt es sich bei dem neuen indischen Verbraucherschutzgesetz um einen Meilenstein in der Verbraucherschutzbewegung dieses Landes. Das Gesetz betrifft vor allem die Regelung von Konsumentenstreitigkeiten, für die es eigene Einrichtungen und verfahren auf Distrikt-, Provinz- und Unionsebene schafft. Das Gesetz enthält auch allgemeine Verbraucherrechte und einen organisatorischen Rahmen zur Verbrauchervertretung.

---

---

Rajendra Kumar Nayak is an Associate Research Professor at the Indian Law Institute, Bhagwan Dass Road, New Delhi-110001, India, and Member, Central Consumer Protection Council, Government of India.     

Consumer education in the UK: new developments in policy,strategy and implementation

Consumer education is an integral part of the European Community's consumer policy. It plays a key role in consumer empowerment, helping consumers gain the skills, attitudes and knowledge they need to be able to gear the choices they make as consumers to their economic interests and to protect their health and safety. In its policy statement, the Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection states that the European Community is aware that joint measures at national and Community levels should be more structured, in order to achieve maximum effectiveness. This paper aims to set out the current policy and strategic context for consumer education and empowerment in the UK; review the role of UK government bodies and other agencies concerned with developments; review recent literature; present the results of interviews with an extensive range of key stakeholders and the results of a survey of service heads for trading standards throughout the UK. It will consider implementation, partnership, resources, ideas and opportunities. The research found that the agenda for consumer education in the UK is at an interesting stage of development. The Enterprise Act 2002 gives the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) a statutory power to carry out educational activities. Consumer education is also moving up the agenda in the trading standards service. In addition, the teaching of citizenship in English schools is already stimulating new developments in consumer education. The paper will consider the need for organizations like these to work together to build on these policy developments and ensure that consumer education gains the profile it needs to influence consumer attitudes and behaviour.     

Fetal protection: Law,ethics and corporate policy

Corporate fetal protection policies are designed to protect unborn children from exposure to harmful substances in the workplace. In recent years, a number of corporations have instituted fetal protection policies which excluded all fertile female employees from jobs which exposed them to hazardous substances. Critics argued that these policies discriminated against women, and several lawsuits were filed.The United States Supreme Court recently decided a case involving the fetal protection policy of Johnson Controls, Inc. This article will analyze the impact of the Supreme Court decision from a legal and ethical perspective. Practical guidelines for policies which protect the unborn and comply with the law will also be addressed.Ira Sprotzer, J. D., is an Associate Professor and Chairman of the Department of Business Policy and Environment at Rider College, Lawrenceville, N.J. Professor Sprotzer is a member of the New Jersey Bar and publishes research in the field of Employment Law.Ilene V. Goldberg, J. D., is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Business Policy and Environment at Rider College, Lawrenceville, N.J. Professor Goldberg is a member of the New Jersey and Pennsylvania Bars and publishes research on topics related to Health Law.     

Consumer Sales Law in Poland: Changing the Law,Changing Attitudes

The purpose of this paper is to show what the future implementation of the Consumer Sales Directive by Poland may involve. The analysis focuses on the substantive legal and other changes necessary to give full effect to the Directive. Polish guarantees law is compared with the Directive in order to identify similarities and divergences and highlight areas in need of reform. A brief account of the extra-legal factors affecting the position of consumers in post-Communist countries supplements the legal analysis in order to show what sort of reforms are necessary. It will be demonstrated that the black letter laws do not need as much change as certain other issues, such as political, economic, and social factors, and, most of all, the idiosyncrasies of the legal profession. Finally, the role of the European Communities in the process of harmonisation of post-Socialist laws with the European Union standards is briefly analysed. Although the analysis of guarantee laws is focused on Poland, the reader is encouraged to see the wider picture of post-Communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, and the specificity of the position of consumers there.     

Consumer policy in the European Community: Before and after Maastricht

The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which the Treaty on European Union agreed at Maastricht will alter European Community consumer protection law and policy. Two aspects of the Treaty have attracted most interest from the consumer viewpoint: the potential forward impetus resulting from the inclusion in the Treaty of a specific Title devoted to consumer protection and the potential reverse impetus of the principle of subsidiarity. The paper surveys the broad scope of Community consumer protection law and policy and analyses subsidiarity as a means for sharpening the debate about responsibility for regulating the Community, not as a basis for renationalisation of Community competence. The paper attempts to build alongside the process of market integration a set of enforceable consumer rights to market regulation. This, more than the new Title, could give real shape to the notion of consumer rights, which in the earlier development of Community law has arisen only in the context of the consumer as the passive beneficiary of free trade.

---

Verbraucherpolitik in der europäischen Gemeinschaft: Vor und nach Maastricht

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, wie stark sich der Unionsvertrag von Maastricht auf Recht und Politik des Verbraucherschutzes der Europäischen Gemeinschaft auswirken wird. Zwei Aspekte des Vertrages haben aus Verbrauchersicht das stärkste Interesse auf sich gezogen: zum einen mögliche förderliche Wirkungen durch die Einbeziehung eines speziellen Titels in den Vertrag, der dem Verbraucherschutz gewidmet ist, und zum anderen mögliche hinderliche Wirkungen durch das Subsidiaritätsprinzip. Der Beitrag bietet einen überblick über die gesamte Bandbreite der Verbraucherschutzgesetzgebung und der Verbraucherpolitik der Gemeinschaft und analysiert Subsidiarität eher als Hilfe zur Schärfung der Debatte über die Verantwortlichkeit für Regulierung und nicht so sehr als Ausgangspunkt für eine Re-Nationalisierung der Zuständigkeiten der Gemeinschaft. Er versucht, entlang des Integrationsprozesses einen Satz von durchsetzbaren Verbraucherrechten in Hinblick auf Marktregulierung zu entwickeln. Dem Konzept der Verbraucherrechte könnte dieser Ansatz besser eine realistische Gestalt geben als der neue Titel im Vertrag.

     

Changes In Consumer Attitudes Toward Marketing,Consumerism and Government Regulation: 1971–1975

Trends in consumer attitudes toward business philosophy, product quality, advertising, consumer responsibilities, government regulation and price controls are examined. The findings of three national surveys indicate that the level of consumer discontent did not change substantially between 1971 and 1975. Despite expanding efforts to advance the interests of consumers, the basic criticisms and frustrations expressed by respondents in 1971 were echoed again in 1973 and 1975. However there were some notable trends in the kinds and magnitudes of consumer concerns over this period. The need to treat consumer dissatisfaction as a relative concept is emphasized, and it is suggested that comparisons of present levels of consumer unrest to a zero base would probably lead to exaggerated interpretations of current conditions.     

Consumer policy and consumer empowerment: comparing the historic development in Finland and Germany

This article traces the trajectories of consumer policy in Finland and Germany in the light of a comparative history in order to reflect upon the notion of consumer empowerment in public policy. The principle developments of contemporary consumer policy can be traced back to the post‐war political and economic integrations arising from the initial idea of free markets and individual freedom emphasized in classical liberalism. The article explores this development in Finland and Germany to the point of the establishment of a joint European Union (EU) consumer policy to reveal the notion of consumer empowerment. This approach creates an understanding of the peculiarities of consumer policy in EU member states despite the presence of a joint European policy area. Nowadays, both Finnish and German consumers find EU regulations excessive. It is important to acknowledge the influence of this historic development in order to understand what consumer empowerment meant in the past and thus to further develop policy action on a joint level.     

Regulation of the Petrol Industry in the UK: Issues and Evidence

The petrol industry has been investigated twice by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission in the last 20 years. On both occasions the MMC found that the conduct of the companies was not against the public interest. These findings were based on the perceived stable relationship between oil and petrol prices. This paper develops a model of petrol price using a co-integration approach, concluding that one must question the findings of the MMC.     

Consumer Protection Law in Ethiopia: The Normative Regime and the Way Forward

The 1960 Civil Code of Ethiopia and other laws have been providing a certain level of protection to consumers until the enactment of laws – in 2010 and 2014 – that expressly deal with consumer protection. This article examines consumer protection in Ethiopia with prime attention to the Trade Competition and Consumer Protection Proclamation No. 813/2013 (enacted in 2014). The social context which prompted the enactment of specific consumer laws in Ethiopia, sources that have influenced Ethiopia’s consumer law regime, rights of consumers, obligations of business persons, regulatory enforcement schemes and some features of consumer protection in digitalized services are highlighted. Moreover, the article briefly deals with the way forward regarding consumer enablement as a path to the effective implementation of consumer rights to choice, safety, information and redress. It is argued that the articulation of specific consumer laws can hardly be implemented unless consumers are adequately empowered to secure their rights and entitlements through effective redress which should include public interest litigation, class action and enhanced civil society engagement.     

Pleasure and the Control of Food Intake: An Embodied Cognition Approach to Consumer Self‐Regulation

Consumers try to avoid temptation when exposed to appetizing foods by diverting their attention away from their senses (e.g., sight, smell, mouthfeel) and bodily states (e.g., state of arousal, salivation) in order to focus on their longer term goals (e.g., eating healthily, achieving an ideal body weight). However, when not including sensations in their decision‐making processes, consumers risk depleting their self‐regulatory resources, potentially leading to unhealthy food choices. Conversely, based on the concept of “embodied self‐regulation,” the suggestion is made that considering bodily states may help consumers regulate their food choices more effectively. A new model is proposed that facilitates understanding observed consumer behavior and the success or failure of self‐control in food intake. It is argued that bodily states and sensory information should be considered when modeling consumer behavior and developing health‐related advocacy and communication campaigns. The model proposed here leads to new perspectives on consumer consumption behavior and health policy research and strategies.     

Passengers,consumers, and travellers: The rise of passenger rights in EC transport law and its repercussions for Community consumer law and policy

EC transport law is set to be complemented by a series of Regulations giving rights to passengers for almost every mode of transport. These Regulations not only give transport law a distinct consumer dimension but also add new elements to European private law. This paper attempts to provide a horizontal, or intermodal, survey of these Regulations, adopted and proposed. It is argued that passenger law, although originating separately and remaining a sector distinct from other fields of law, has become part of a wider, three-stranded notion of European consumer policy deserving due attention as the force most dynamically expanding the area of Community law of contracts and of torts. The paper will point to the elements of consumer contract law and the law on travel and tourism related to passenger transport and elaborate on the basics for finding a common notion of the key terms like “passenger” and “damage” for Community law. It concludes with some points for further reflection.

消费教育中的"消协":职能、问题与改进思路

在与厂商的竞争中,消费者处于弱势地位,而消费者弱势的集中表现是信息不足.因此,消费教育的核心任务,就是通过种种途径和方法,增加消费者的知识和信息,提高消费质量,增强消费者的维权能力,降低消费风险.作为正式组织的消费者协会(或委员会),承担着重要的职责,在消费教育中的地位不可替代.     

Consumer involvement and acceptance of biotechnology in the European Union: a specific focus on Spain and the UK

Biotechnology stands out as a clear‐cut example of an industry where legislation on new technologies has been shown to be linked with public attitudes. Indeed, consumer consultation has played a leading role in the acceptance of genetically modified (GM) food as well as in government policy and legislation. This paper examines the issue of consumer consultation by analysing how public opinion has conditioned the acceptance of GM food in the European Union in general and specifically in Spain and the UK. We draw upon the evidence of two Eurobarometer surveys (46.1 and 52.1) to argue that consumer decision making on new technologies is an information‐dependent factor explaining consumer rejection to non‐transparent introduction of GM food. Individuals feel ill‐prepared to make decisions and rely on trusted information advisors such as consumer organizations. Findings suggest significant information dependency as well as widespread heterogeneity in attitudes towards the applications of biotechnology. Finally, the role played by information channels indicates that consumer participation should precede the adoption of communication policies, as they might need to adapt to the specific cultural characteristics of each country.     

Unfair Consumer Contract Terms Under Macedonian Law: How the Old and the New Function in Practice

This article analyses the functioning in practice of the system of substantive regulation of unfair terms in consumer contracts, introduced into Macedonian law as part of the harmonization obligations of the EU accession process. Specifically, the article seeks to establish the possible reasons for the absence of substantial evidence of application of the rules on unfair contract terms in consumer contracts in Macedonian practice. In providing an explanation, the focus is on the transposition of the consumer acquis and the Unfair Contract Terms Directive into national law, the enforcement structure for consumer law, and the relationship with the pre-existing civil law. In sum, the inconsistencies and incompleteness of the transposition, the weak and complex enforcement structure, as well as the unsettled relationship with the already existing civil law rules on similar topics have all contributed to weaken the practical significance of the special law on unfair contract terms.