Alternative Tourism and Sustainable Development in Kenya

This article examines alternative tourism and especially the form dubbed ecotourism and assesses its prospects for sustainable development in Kenya. It also considers community participation in ecotourism, the Kenya government policy on ecotourism, and the initiatives to yield sustainable development in the country. The findings show that biodiversity conservation encourages and supports tourism which, in turn, provides money for conservation efforts and local development programmes. However, ecotourism has not necessarily led to small scale, locally owned tourism enterprises expected in the ecotourism model. The analysis shows nevertheless that alternative tourism development has drawn attention to the role of local people in biodiversity conservation, the basis of ecotourism. Hopefully, this will lead to greater local participation in the ownership, management and control of ecotourism enterprises.     

制度增权:社区参与旅游发展之土地权利变革

社区参与旅游发展失败的原因可以归结为三个方面:权利失败、机会缺失与能力匮乏。对于后两者,研究者们已经开展了广泛的研究。而针对社区居民"无权"和"去权"的权利失败状况,学术界至今缺乏应有的关注。文章以马克思地租理论为起点,结合现代产权理论,通过对典型案例的研究,剖析了我国农村土地产权状态及其决定的旅游开发增值收益分配在理论上和现实中的矛盾性,提出了"吸引物权"这一新型的产权权利,并指出我国农村社区参与权利失败的制度性根源在于集体土地所有权受限制支配、所有权主体"虚位"和吸引物权"缺位",最后,在此基础上提出了推动中国农村社区参与旅游发展的土地权利变革之路。     

Integrating tea and tourism: a sustainable livelihoods approach

Abstract

As an agricultural product with strong social and cultural connotations, the production and consumption of tea have high potential to be integrated with tourism to enhance community livelihood sustainability. A sustainable livelihood approach is used in a tea tourism context in Hetu Town, Anhui Province, China, to examine critically the interactive relationships between tea and tourism. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with management officials, community leaders, tea industry representatives and village residents in four field investigations in 2015 and 2016. Improvement in community livelihood sustainability was identified through enhancement of livelihood diversity and choice. However, impacts on household livelihood sustainability varied as tourism participation is restricted by level of livelihood assets. The increase of the within-community income gap may generate social problems in the long run. The current level of tea and tourism integration is limited. The history, culture and traditions related with tea are not widely disseminated by local tea producers. Opportunities for in-depth and diversified tea tourism experiences are being recognized, which call for partnership with those involved in tourism. Practical implications are discussed to enhance tea and tourism integration, boost local participation, enhance local benefits, and particularly, to engage those with lower levels of livelihood assets.     

Marine-tourism development on a small island in Indonesia: blessing or curse?

Indonesia is a popular tourist destination. Tourism creates jobs and generates revenue but can have negative impacts on culture, society and human rights. This study of one island community in Indonesia explores the relationship between the growth of tourism and the impacts on a local community. A quantitative survey, combined with in-depth interviews, examined perceptions of residents to tourism development. Residents perceived that tourism created jobs and improved access to goods and services. However, tourism has reduced social cohesion and decreased adherence to traditional customs. Conflict between the private sector and residents over ownership and access have also caused violence.     

Inhibitors to host community participation in sustainable tourism development in developing countries

The involvement of host communities (or destination residents), particularly in developing countries, is critical to the success of tourism development and to the creation of a “Just Destination”. This paper investigates host community perceptions about obstacles to their participation in tourism development in Lombok, Indonesia, providing new insights into institutional influences on tourism opportunities and issues. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques targeted separate groups of destination residents who live in a developed tourism destination, a less developed tourism destination, a remote rural village far away from tourism destinations, as well as a group of university students. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, qualitative questionnaires and observation, and were analysed using content analysis. Results show three main institutional factors inhibit host community participation in tourism: tourism agencies, private sector providers and tourism infrastructure, and perceptions of the negative impacts of tourism. The underperformance of state tourism agencies and private sector providers resulted in a lack of tourism infrastructure and limitations on host community opportunities to participate in tourism development and businesses. The findings suggest the need for improvement in the training of state tourism agency employees, better coordination among government agencies, and improved education and training for tourism operators.     

Sustainability and Local Tourism Branding in England's South Downs

This paper reports on a stakeholder consultation exercise that examined the tourism industry's perception of developing a local tourism branding scheme within the South Downs' protected areas in south-east England. The research shows that such schemes could offer potential benefits that are recognisable by the tourism industry, while helping to meet the statutory aims of the protected area. The paper records the perceptions of small tourism businesses, their fears, awareness of tourism impacts, perceptions of sustainable tourism and of local branding, and key criteria connected to the future organisation of a local tourism branding scheme. The conclusion lists the recommendations for the implementation of a local branding scheme, including grassroots stakeholder consultation that encourages ownership and participation, institutional frameworks that support capacity-building and the importance of developing core values within a local brand.     

境外国家公园社区管理冲突：表现、溯源及启示

国家公园社区冲突研究对于目前中国正开展的国家公园体制试点工作具有指导意义。文章以境外国家公园社区冲突为现实案例,梳理公园管理机构与社区之间冲突的具体表现,发现社区冲突是由公园定界、公园生态保护和公园开发利用3个方面所引致,由此追根溯源至土地政策、利益机制和管理手段。当这三者置身于国家公园体制框架中时,从土地权属保障制度、社区参与制度和特许经营制度3个方面着手预防或改善公园与社区居民之间的关系是具有可操作性和针对性的。文章提出的4类土地权属关系可从一定程度上解决生态保护和社区发展的矛盾,PAC模式保证了社区在国家公园利益分配和补偿中的重要地位,透明顺畅的信息沟通增强社区对公园的信任和信心,社区特许经营制度向社区的倾斜可保障失地社区居民生计。当社区居民“得以偿失”,社区冲突就会止于源头。     

Minority community participation in tourism: A case of Kanas Tuva villages in Xinjiang,China

Generally western scholars argue that local tourism participation is a precondition for benefits reaching communities. However, in China, particularly in some ethnic minority areas, this paradigm is not easily put into practice. Based on a study in the Kanas Nature Reserve of Xinjiang combining the use of a questionnaire and in-depth interviews, the means by which Tuva residents participated in, and derived benefits from tourism was investigated, and local stakeholders' attitude about community participation ascertained. The results indicate a low level of community participation and the implications of this for future tourism development are discussed with reference to the future development of tourism in the Kanas Reserve.     

Evolving roles for local government in tourism development: a political economy perspective

This paper interrogates the changing role of local government in tourism development. It does so through the examination of the Hurunui District, a rural district in New Zealand which has experienced significant transformation in the tourism sector and a concomitant increase in public sector input over the past 25 years. By situating this interrogation within an evolving neoliberal public policy context, this paper explores the tensions at play between tourism stakeholders and decision-makers, and it critiques the way in which local government involvement in the sector is manifested as regulation, promotion, and ownership of key tourism resources in the District. The significance of this paper is that it extends our understanding of the role of the state in tourism and of the influence of public policy on tourism development, potentially including sustainable tourism development. Specifically, it draws our attention to the rationality, roles and activities of public sector engagement in the tourism sector, particularly at local government level. We conclude that the nature and extent of debate evident in the case study, and verified in the literature, indicates that the boundary of government activity and intervention in the tourism market is, and will continue to be, socially contested and mediated.     

基于层次分析法的乡村旅游地社区参与状况评价——以北京市平谷区黄松峪乡雕窝村为例

良好的乡村旅游社区参与能够发挥多重功能:延长乡村旅游地作为旅游目的地的生命周期,为其塑造良好的旅游地形象.同时,促使当地居民的经济、生活状况得到提升和改善.因此,良好的社区参与是乡村旅游可持续发展的重要保障.文章以北京市平谷区黄松峪乡雕窝村为例,运用AHP层次分析法将社区参与复杂的内涵进行逐层分析,发挥其定量分析与定性分析相结合的优点,对乡村旅游的社区参与情况进行比较客观的评价,从社区参与的角度为乡村旅游可持续发展提供参考.     

Sustainability practices of family firms: the interplay between family ownership and long-term orientation

Sustainability practices are critical for family firms, as they relate directly to the continuity of the business and relationships with important stakeholders, such as members of the local community. Nevertheless, not all family firms wish to adopt sustainability practices. To examine this, we draw upon the socioemotional wealth perspective in order to develop a theoretical model of the direct negative effects of family ownership on the adoption of sustainability practices. We also suggest moderating effects of long-term orientation (LTO) on this link. Our model is tested on a sample of 195 family firms in the tourism and hospitality sector. The results support our hypothesis that family ownership negatively influences the adoption of sustainability practices. Additionally, LTO moderates the relationship between family ownership and the adoption of sustainability practices, such that family owners with a high LTO are more likely to adopt this particular practice compared to those with a low LTO.     

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest of Palenque: empowerment issues in sustainable development

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest has received little research attention. This study examines issues related to the level of empowerment in a Mayan village located near the Palenque World Heritage Site in southern Mexico. An adapted empowerment framework was used to assess community empowerment and its relationship with stakeholders’ participation by collecting the views of internal and external stakeholders in indigenous ecotourism. Using a checklist of 60 empowerment indicators, the study developed a wheel of empowerment tool that graphically illustrates and compares levels of empowerment/disempowerment in local communities. Results indicate that although there is a will from many villagers to participate in tourism, lack of knowledge, limited economic resources and the poor negotiation skills of local leaders have disempowered the community from undertaking ecotourism ventures. Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have not supported the community until recently, the private sector has played little part, and while the Mexican government is shaping the course of indigenous ecotourism with support programmes, state agencies have resisted local ecotourism development. Overall, the community fell below the midpoint on the Wheel of Empowerment Scale. These findings show a need for more effective empowerment strategies to maximise community involvement in managing cultural and natural resources for tourism development.     

Community-building and amenity migration in community-based tourism development. An approach from southwest Spain

Many of the localities that promote community-based tourism (CBT) are subject to processes of openness, mobility and amenity migration that: (1) call into question the concept of community required to understand CBT; and (2) foster the existence of 'outsider' residents who are increasingly playing prominent roles in the development of CBT. This paper uses an ethnographic case study to analyze the participation of amenity migrants in the development of CBT and the effect this has on community building. To this end, the bonding relations that link and structure the local tourist sector are examined. The findings invite us from a theoretical and practical perspective to: (1) take into consideration the participation of amenity migrants in the development of CBT; (2) reflect on an appropriate concept of community to study or promote CBT experiences; and (3) consider that the development of CBT and community building are inherently and recursively linked processes.     

Human resources development for tourism in rural communities: A case study of Kerala

Considering the relative backwardness of rural areas, human resources development (HRD) seems to have a very important role in rural tourism development. However, tourism HRD in rural communities is affected by a number of drawbacks. In the absence of any significant private sector presence, especially during initial stages, the public sector need to take the initiative in equipping and empowering the local community to meaningfully participate in tourism. This paper suggests a multi‐pronged approach to educate and empower the members of the host community, the tourism industry personnel, and visitors to facilitate rural tourism development, which is sustainability‐oriented and can help localize the benefits. The experience of Kerala provides an example of how the public sector initiated HRD activities could contribute to the development of rural tourism, especially in engendering local entrepreneurial endeavors and giving tourism a higher profile. The Kerala experience represents some of the issues in HRD for rural tourism and suggests potential strategies for other rural communities involved in tourism development.     

社区旅游参与视角下民族村寨旅游地居民地方感生成研究

居民地方感领域的研究在深化“人-地”关系认识、旅游目的地地方性塑造、旅游资源开发与保护以及旅游规划等方面具有特殊意义。已有研究主要探讨人口统计学特征、物理环境和社会环境等影响因素,缺乏对旅游世界中人与场的积极互动而产生的地方感等问题的讨论。本研究从社区旅游参与视角,通过田野调查的方法收集郎德上寨村民主诉的旅游参与实践,对民族旅游村寨居民地方感的生成问题进行分析。研究发现:郎德上寨村民的社区旅游参与主要表现为“合作激励型”“自我激励型”“机械被动型”和“利益激励型”4种类型;在社区旅游参与过程中,村民获得了强烈的地方感,并由自然地理和人文物理环境、社会文化特性、经济制度、乡土认同、血缘认同、文化认同、房屋归属感和生活便利性等内容体现。本研究还发现,居民地方感在不同的社区旅游参与形态中表现出差异性;社区旅游参与和地方感之间是双向、交互式的影响关系,其中,旅游效益感知因素在二者的关系中起着重要的中介作用。     

Urban vs. rural destinations: Residents’ perceptions,community participation and support for tourism development

This paper investigates and compares the effects of residents' perceptions of the impacts of tourism on community participation and support for tourism development across urban and rural world heritage sites (WHSs). Partial least squares – structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), has been employed to perform the analysis. The results reveal significant differences between the effects of residents' perceptions and community participation on support for tourism development in urban and rural destinations. However, the findings did not support any differences between the effects of positive perceptions on community participation, and the indirect effects of negative perceptions on support for tourism development. This study makes a significant theoretical contribution to the urban and rural tourism and residents’ perceptions literature by comparing rural and urban WHSs residents. Furthermore, this study has a number of practical implications for the local authorities of rural and urban WHSs.     

Environmental policy integration as a strategy for sustainable tourism planning: issues in implementation

Both in a national and global context, it is challenging to identify key conditions for the integration of sustainable tourism in public policy. By studying a number of recent planning processes pertaining to tourism development, this article aims to contribute recent insight into how sustainability may be integrated into tourism planning. The study was motivated by a publicized shift in the Norwegian government policy strategy on sustainable tourism, from a sector approach to an integration approach. Through case analysis, the concept of environmental policy integration is applied. Findings show that sustainable tourism is partially integrated in all cases and three key issues are outlined. First, although Norway is characterized by a high degree of sector organization, it has a weak structure for overall tourism policy integration. Second, the integration of sustainable tourism has been stimulated by national horizontal integration, bottom-up integration prepared by institutional changes, public participation, and by active use of the municipal system of planning. Third, this study could not find any evidence for the announced shift from a sector approach to an integrated approach to sustainable tourism.     

Progress in visitor attraction research: Towards more effective management

Visitor attractions (VAs) play a crucial role in the success of a tourism destination, where they act as key motivators for visits and as resources for local communities. The range of stakeholders involved means their effective management is of key importance in the destination and in the overall success of a country's tourism product, yet they are an under-researched sector of the tourism system. This Progress in Tourism Management paper reviews and reflects on research publications in relation to this sector. It sets the wider research context and identifies the key management issues experienced at VAs. The paper identifies the limitations of current work in this field and establishes how factors such as ownership and visitor volume help to explain the complexities encountered in managing VAs. The paper then covers a set of themes to structure discussion of previous research activity and offers a model of factors involved in the effective management of VAs. The paper concludes with the development of a research agenda for VA researchers.     

民族地区原住民参与旅游开发的法律赋权研究

民族地区原住民既是当地旅游活动的重要对象,又是民族文化旅游资源的创造者和传承者。但在旅游扶贫开发和运营中,由于旅游吸引物权规定的“法律真空”,缺乏法律制度保障的原住民在与开发商和政府博弈中往往被边缘化,导致经济收益偏低,却要承担旅游开发所产生的各种各样的成本,严重损害了原住民的利益。文章运用赋权与产权理论,对原住民参与旅游开发的弱势地位的核心原因进行了辨析,指出原住民参与处于“无权”或“弱权”状态是因为对旅游者最具吸引力的天然属于原住民所有的原生态民族文化旅游资源产权界定上的法律缺失,提出了加强旅游吸引物权的“确权＋流转”为主要内容的法律赋权建议,并分析了赋权后可能产生的消极影响及其防范措施。最后以石泉苗寨为例,具体剖析了法律赋权下的民族地区原住民参与旅游开发的方式与企业的经营机制,以期彻底改变原住民的地位弱势、收益偏低和参与“无话语权”的现状,增加原住民的财产性收益,缓解原住民与开发商之间的矛盾,维护民族地区的和谐稳定。     

Community participation in World Heritage Site conservation and tourism development

This study investigates the factors contributing to community participation in a World Heritage Site (WHS) using Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability (MOA) model. We examined the effects of these factors on three levels of community participation. The findings showed that motivation had the greatest positive effect on the low level of community participation. Opportunity had the greatest effect on the high level of community participation. Among the dimensions of ability, namely awareness and knowledge, the findings showed that more aware residents were more interested in low level of community participation, whereas residents with more knowledge were more interested in high level of community participation. This study contributes to the tourism development and WHS conservation and management literature by examining the effects of MOA factors on three levels of community participation. Moreover, this study has a number of practical implications for local authorities in terms of community participation.