Romanian tourism in the post-communist period

This paper examines tourism development in post-communist Romania. It first examines tourism trends between 1989 and 1997. International arrivals are faltering, due to political/economic instability since 1989, the legacy of a decaying tourism infrastructure, and poor standards of service. Post-communist economic restructuring has significantly depressed domestic tourism, with the accommodation sector also declining. This leads to a discussion on tourism restructuring, particularly the privatization of accommodation, the introduction and regulation of standards for it, and the training/education of tourism personnel. Next, future prospects are considered, specially rural, heritage and cultural tourism. The paper concludes that, despite Romania's considerable tourism potential, the immediate future prospects are not encouraging.     

出境旅游需求的影响因素--兼论发展中经济体与发达经济体的异同

根据微观经济学的需求理论,结合相关研究进展,文章构建了包括基本经济因素（收入和相对价格）、对外开放度、旅游业发展水平、人口统计特征、突发事件等变量在内的出境旅游需求模型,以74个国家/地区1995—2013年的数据为样本,分析了发达经济体和发展中经济体出境旅游需求影响因素的总体特征与异同。结果表明,收入和价格是影响出境旅游需求的决定性因素,对外开放度、旅游业发展水平、人口统计特征及突发事件等其他因素对出境旅游需求同样具有一定的影响。其中,收入、价格以及产业发展水平对发展中经济体出境旅游需求的影响作用相对更大,而对外开放度和人口统计特征（就业水平、年龄结构和受教育水平）对发达经济体出境旅游需求的影响更加显著。     

Border resident perceptions of sanctions and tourism: A case study of North Korea

Sanctions have been increasingly used as a diplomatic practice among international actors. Although sanctions have offered important insights into the global tourism system, relevant understandings require further research endeavour. This study explores border resident perceptions of sanctions and tourism in the case of North Korea. It involves an analysis of in-depth interviews with residents of Dandong - the largest Chinese border city facing North Korea. The findings reveal that the economic and tourism development of both North Korea and Dandong are considered to be disrupted by sanctions. In addition to the perceived negative impacts brought by sanctions, the study also uncovers relevant positive impacts. Furthermore, it suggests that sanctions tend to be interpreted and evaluated by residents through short- and long-term perspectives. The study advances the emerging interdisciplinary progress of tourism and sanctions through unpacking and highlighting the influences of sanctions on residents and tourism of border city.     

Tourism development at the Baptism Site of Jesus Christ,Jordan: residents' perspectives

Several studies have discussed the impacts of mass tourism on destinations and how local residents perceive such impacts. However, only a few studies have looked specifically at how sacred destinations and their residents are affected by religious tourism. This research note explores tourism's impacts on the Baptismal Site of Jesus on the eastern side of the Jordan River in Jordan. The study also examines the perceptions of residents about these impacts. Interviews were conducted with staff at the site, including the manager, the conservationist and locals working in conservation and tour guiding. Findings revealed that religious tourism helped create a source of income in the area and enhanced the local infrastructure. Tourism was also perceived to help restore and protect archeological remains. There is a general positive perception of tourism development; no negative sociocultural impacts were perceived. As well, it appears that residents have little concern for negative social impacts because their economic benefits outweigh any concerns, and there is minimal contact between tourists and residents.     

The Sustainability of Whale-watching in Scotland

Scotland's tourism trade grosses £2.5 billion annually and supports 180,000 jobs; whale-watching is an important part of this activity. Whales and dolphins are the country's number one wildlife attraction and with 11,770 km of coastline the potential for the Scottish industry is huge. In rural areas it can provide as much as 12% of local income. During the tourist season of 2000, questionnaires and telephone interviews were used to investigate the sustainability of Scottish whale-watching. 48 operators cooperated providing economic and environmental information. Most operators were found to be local people (72.4%), supporting five or less full-time equivalent jobs (86.4%). Over half of those questioned (63.2%) had alternative incomes and no formal training in wildlife tourism or business management (70.8%); 89.5% of respondents stated that they follow a code of conduct. The East Coast and Western Isles show the best-perceived trends in tourist numbers. Whale-watching in Scotland is shown to have potential for growth but a need to be regulated and managed from within the industry to ensure environmental and economic sustainability into the future.     

Costs and Benefits: The Impact of Cathedral Tourism in England

England has 42 Anglican cathedrals, many of which are major visitor attractions and which together welcome around 10 million visitors per year. Cathedrals generate substantial local economic benefits of some £150 million per annum within their urban economies and employ 1885 people on a full-time basis. Cathedral visitors spend approximately £30 a day on a visit to a cathedral city, but unfortunately very little of this revenue is received by the cathedral as donations. This short paper, which forms part of a larger research project examining different aspects of religious tourism, looks at the economic significance of English cathedrals within their urban contexts, arguing that the rising cost of conserving and maintaining the fabric of cathedrals is likely to result in increased need to raise revenue from visitors.     

Prospects for Latin America and Caribbean Region in the Global Market for International Tourism: A Projection to the Year 2020

International tourism has become very important to several developing countries as a major source of foreign exchange earnings for their economic development. This article explores the potentials of countries of the Latin America and Caribbean region in the global market for international tourism up to the end of the next decade. This was achieved by analyzing past trends of international tourism in the region, and projecting these trends to the year 2020 using a combination of four different time‐series projection models evaluated by the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). Results show that international tourism arrivals into the Latin America and Caribbean region would increase from 51.21 million in 2004 (end of observed period) to between 87.58 million and 100.03 million by the year 2020. The corresponding figures for international tourism receipts would go from US$34.11 billion in 2004 to between US$64.92 billion and US$75.79 billion by the year 2020. Socioeconomic impacts of these findings are given, and recommendations for marketing strategies, government public policies, and directions for future research are discussed.     

Residents' support for tourism development: The role of residents' place image and perceived tourism impacts

Drawing on the triple bottom line approach for tourism impacts (economic, socio-cultural and environmental) and adopting a non-forced approach for measuring residents' perception of these impacts, this study explores the role of residents' place image in shaping their support for tourism development. The tested model proposes that residents' place image affects their perceptions of tourism impacts and in turn their support for tourism development. The results stress the need for a more flexible and resident-oriented measurement of tourism impacts, revealing that more favorable perceptions of the economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts lead to greater support. Moreover, while residents' place image has been largely neglected by tourism development studies, the findings of this study reveal its significance in shaping residents' perception of tourism impacts as well as their level of support. The practical implications of the findings for tourism planning and development are also discussed.     

Backpacker tourism: sustainable and purposeful? Investigating the overlap between backpacker tourism and volunteer tourism motivations

Alternative tourism, particularly backpacker and volunteer tourism, has developed significantly in recent times. This rapid development has contributed to criticism of potential negative effects, notably of the environmental, cultural, economic and social impacts associated with backpacker tourism. Volunteer tourism, by contrast, has been seen in positive terms as more sustainable, combining altruistic motivations with the travel concept. This paper explores backpacker interest in volunteer tourism and identifies overlaps in motivations between the two forms of tourism; 249 self-administered questionnaires were collected from backpackers within backpacker hostels in central Melbourne, Australia. The findings of this study suggest that a motivational overlap exists between backpacker and volunteer tourists, indicating potential for the creation of volunteer tourism products catering specifically for the backpacker market. This may encourage more sustainable tourism experiences within the burgeoning backpacker market, thus addressing some of the negative criticism of the latter. This paper also discusses the implications of these findings for the marketing and development of volunteer tourism products for both the backpacker and volunteer tourism markets.     

Time-varying impact of economic policy uncertainty and geopolitical risk on tourist arrivals: Evidence from a developing country

Although the relationship between uncertainties and tourism has been widely discussed, the time-varying impacts of uncertainties on tourism have been ignored. This paper investigates the time-varying relationship between two global and domestic uncertain shocks (namely, economic policy uncertainty (EPU), geopolitical risks (GPR)) with Chinese inbound tourism using a time-varying parameter vector autoregression (TVP-VAR) model. The empirical results show that uncertain shocks on tourist arrivals have significantly time-varying features, and the direction of the effect changes. The impact gradually weakens with the increase in the lag period. However, the impacts are heterogeneous depending on the uncertain shocks. Additionally, the effects of major event shocks on tourism differ. The uncertainty of the 9/11 terrorist attack had the shortest impact on tourism, while the impact on tourism was greater for geopolitical risks than for economic policy uncertainty during the global financial crisis. These findings provide new insights for policy holders and relevant investors into the mentioned relationships.     

旅游对传统村落的影响研究——以安徽齐云山为例

旅游影响一直是国内外旅游研究的重要课题,旅游地居民对旅游发展的感知是研究旅游影响的重要途径。此次调查以安徽省黄山市休宁县齐云山为例,采用问卷调查和现场访谈相结合的方式,运用SPSS、CATPACTM等软件对调查结果进行数理统计,从居民与游客角度分析了旅游开发给齐云山居民带来的经济、社会文化、环境的若干影响,以及居民对旅游业所持的态度。文章着重于探讨居民对于因旅游开发所带来的村落影响的感知,以及他们对于当前旅游影响的评测和对未来旅游发展的期待。     

Sustainable tourism management in Crikvenica,Croatia: An assessment of policy instruments

Tourism industries often create negative impacts on the environment, society, culture, and sometimes even on the economy. However, few countries are using economic, regulatory or institutional policy instruments for tourism management. This paper explores the potential use of eight such instruments for managing more sustainable tourism in the coastal town of Crikvenica, Croatia. First, the dominant negative impacts of tourism in Crikvenica are identified and indicators are developed in order to measure such impacts. Second, the policy instruments are assessed based on three criteria: (1) their effectiveness in mitigating the previously identified impacts and hence in improving the sustainability of tourism (2) their acceptability to stakeholders (3) their economic and technical feasibility. The paper concludes that there is a great deal of scope for the use of such policy instruments in tourism management. Nevertheless, not every instrument examined satisfies all three criteria. For instance, financial incentives (e.g. subsidies) are seen as effective and highly acceptable but economically unfeasible.     

Estimating the long-run effects of socioeconomic and meteorological factors on the domestic tourism demand for Galicia (Spain)

Tourism is one of the more important sectors for the economy of Galicia (northwest of Spain). The aim of our study is to quantify determinants of Galician domestic tourism demand and their impacts. Additionally, confidence intervals for these impacts are calculated by bootstrapping data. The results show that income, Eastern vacations and the celebration of the Holy Year of the Apostle Saint James have had a relevant positive impact on tourism. There is also a significant positive connection between a meteorological phenomenon, the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and tourism demand. On the other hand, the differential rates of inflation between Galicia and the rest of Spain and the 2008 economic crisis have had a negative effect.     

旅游能缓解保护地人与野生动物冲突吗?

人与野生动物冲突正成为我国自然保护地管理的显性问题,理解并寻找缓解人与野生动物冲突的方法成为重要研究问题。发展旅游被视为缓解此类冲突的重要手段,但已有研究尚未系统地评估旅游的缓解作用。本研究通过整合性综述的方法,探讨旅游能否以及如何缓解人与野生动物冲突这一问题。研究发现旅游对人与野生动物冲突的影响是多重的。对于辐射范围内的社区,旅游通过给社区带来经济利益,可以提高居民对野生动物的容忍度,从而缓解冲突。但旅游经济利益分配存在不充足、不平等和不匹配等问题,因而其缓解冲突的效应也不均衡。有些旅游活动还会产生负面生态影响,导致野生动物对人类习惯化和种群数量过度增长,进而加剧景区周边社区与野生动物冲突。本文最后建议加强对旅游的分配正义、生态影响和社会文化视角的研究。     

The effects of economic benefits on place affect: the mediating role of perceived values and non-material life satisfaction

This research aims to test the impacts of personal economic benefits from tourism, perceived values, non-material life domain satisfaction on place affect to rural community. Data were collected from rural community, Ningde, China, and a structural equation modeling approach was used. The findings show that personal economic benefits from tourism is positively associated with perceived values and non-material life domain satisfaction, but not positively related to place affect. Perceived values and non-material life domain satisfaction mediate the relationship between personal economic benefits from tourism and place affect. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed for the rural community.     

Tourism expansion, tourism uncertainty and economic growth: New evidence from Taiwan and Korea

This study examines the causal relationship between tourism expansion and economic growth in two Asian countries: Taiwan and South Korea. An EGARCH-M model with uncertainty factors is employed to examine the direction of causality between tourism expansion and economic growth, as well as the impulse impacts of uncertainty on both variables. The results indicate that the tourism-led economic growth hypothesis is supported for Taiwan while a reciprocal causal relationship is found for South Korea. The significant impacts of uncertainty on growth are also identified.     

The impacts of Australia's departure tax: Tourism versus the economy?

This study estimates the flow and expenditure effects of the recent increase in Australia's Passenger Movement Charge (PMC), as well as the economic impacts on the Australian economy and the tourism industry. After discussing the nature of the PMC, it outlines the types of industry stakeholder concerns as to its effects on tourism both before and after the recent increase. It then presents a framework developed by the authors that can be used to distinguish the effects of the increased PMC on the wider economy and on different tourism markets. A computable general equilibrium model is then used to estimate the economic impacts of the increased charge on different Australian tourism markets – inbound, outbound and domestic. The implications of the modelling results for the validity of the industry criticisms of the PMC are discussed. The results confirm that the tourism industry will suffer, though it also indicates that the Australian economy will gain – thus there is a clash between the industry and wider economic interests. The types of issues addressed in this paper can inform policy making regarding the gainers and losers from departure tax increases in tourism destinations generally.     

The economic importance of meetings and conferences: A satellite account approach

Meetings and conventions (MICE) visitation is often considered an important element of the travel economy, and destinations target such activities to encourage their growth. It has hitherto been difficult to measure the economic significance of such activity at any spatial scale. Latterly, the development and codification of tourism satellite account (TSA) approaches to the economic measurement of tourism offers an opportunity to develop a parallel approach to understanding the MICE economy. This paper presents an estimate of the direct economic impact of MICE activity in the UK in 2011, following TSA approaches. The potential to extend the core Meetings Satellite Account, to estimate indirect economic impact and sub-national economic impacts, is also assessed.     

Perceived Social Impacts of Tourism by Residents in the OTOP Tourism Village,Thailand

This study aims to investigate the impacts of tourism development at Baan Tawai, the first OTOP Tourism Village in Thailand, and to examine the relationship between demographic factors and Baan Tawai residents' perceptions of the social impacts of tourism development. Data were collected using questionnaires. The finding is that the residents positively perceive social impacts in term of job creation for women in the village. Additionally, they do not see any social changes brought in by tourism and do not think that tourism leads to an increase in prostitution, vandalism, burglary, or drug abuse.