Profiling the segments of visitors to Portuguese protected areas

This study identifies the diversity of domestic visitors to Portuguese protected areas (PPA) based on benefit segmentation. The segments of PPA visitors are also compared with other nature-based tourist segments using some empirical benefit segmentation literature. Data were collected by means of a self-administered questionnaire and multivariate statistics techniques (principal components, hierarchical and K-means cluster analyses) were applied. Five distinct segments of visitors were identified based on the motivation for their visit and further characterized by the perceived importance of activities, facilities and services, frequency of visit and socio-demographics. Three segments are nature-focused and two are focused on activities or events. Only one segment shows specific interests and motivations associated with ecotourism and similar characteristics to international ecotourists; moreover, the reasons for the visit in one segment are unrelated to any of the motivations of nature-based tourism. Some implications for management are also described.     

Toward a product-based typology for nature-based tourism: a conceptual framework

The traditional view of nature-based tourists as a relatively homogeneous group has been questioned, and several scholars have suggested various segmentation typologies. This paper discusses market and industry changes and notes key trends, as Fordist tourist products have been replaced by post-Fordist and neo-Fordist products, with both McDonaldization and McDisneyization developments. A range of visitor-based typologies are reviewed, and the conflict between capturing the diversity of today's nature-based tourists while offering management bodies simple tools to segment visitors, identify core groups and improve their marketing is noted. In an attempt to overcome this conflict, the paper presents a conceptual framework which focuses on nature-based tourism products instead of tourist types, therefore incorporating aspects of both the demand and supply sides of the nature-based tourism industry market. A two-dimensional matrix is suggested, linking four basic travel motivations (nature conservation, nature experience, sports/adventure and hedonistic) to four different types of tourist products (independent, à la carte, customized and standardized), giving a total typology of 16 different types. The matrix should help protected area managers to better understand tourist needs, suggest management measures and help to create more sustainable forms of tourism. Empirical testing is suggested as a next step.     

Tourism life cycle and sustainability analysis: Profit-focused strategies for mature destinations

Tourist destinations tend to follow similar development patterns. Eventually, all destinations enter the market maturity stage leading to a decline in visitors. To prevent visitor decline, tourism managers and policy makers try to reposition their destinations appealing to more tourist segments. A multi-segment strategy is expensive and may create a fuzzy destination image, further accelerating the decline. An alternative strategy extends Zeithaml, Rust, and Lemon’s (2001) customer pyramid theory. This paper applies customer pyramid theory to Turkey’s tourism industry. Precise targeting of the most loyal visitors (Platinum tourists) creates a less costly and more focused marketing strategy leading to a sustainable tourism industry. Loyal Platinum tourists tend to be less price sensitive than other visitors. The discussion includes strategies to convert Gold and Iron category tourists to Platinum providing additional growth opportunities.     

Characteristics and Perceptions of Coastal and Wildflower Nature-based Tourists in the Central Coast Region of Western Australia

Profiles of independent nature-based tourists were assessed in the Central Coast Region of Western Australia. The research was required to determine seasonal resource use as well as to identify any potential groupings within a population of nature-based tourists. The research was based on information collected from 702 self-administered visitor surveys. Data were statistically analysed using non-parametric tests. Results confirm that nature-based tourists are not a homogeneous group and that group characteristics vary seasonally. Visitors in the summer were casual coastal nature tourists. Their activities were spatially concentrated along the coast and included various forms of recreation. Visitors in the spring were wildflower tourists who travelled predominantly in hinterland areas and their activities focused more on nature appreciation. Coastal tourists were younger, travelled in larger groups and stayed longer at the destination. Coastal tourists are likely to require more facilities than wildflower tourists. Assessment of attitudes towards value statements regarding tourism and the environment highlighted the diversity of opinions among visitor groups. Visitors also demonstrated variable understanding of tourism types and ecotourism was the least understood type. The research highlights difficulties in separating visitors into general nature-based tourists and ecotourists.     

Sustainable tourism and its use as a development strategy in Cambodia: a systematic literature review

Governments in many developing countries endorse sustainable tourism, despite associated practical limitations and challenges as a development strategy. Using the case of Cambodia, this paper illustrates how sustainable tourism issues in a developing country may be better understood through a systematic review of scattered relevant peer-reviewed and grey literature. This can help in identifying emergent themes and challenges, gaps in knowledge, and opportunities for future research. Analysis of 77 documents on Cambodia's sustainable tourism revealed themes and challenges relating to: (1) an emphasis on nature-based tourism (ecotourism); (2) calls for greater community engagement for sustainable outcomes; (3) stakeholder perceptions and values as drivers of tourism success; (4) cultural heritage as a key tourism attraction; and (5) foreign investment shaping Cambodia's tourism future. Unequal emphasis is given to key government policies for tourism development and there is limited practical guidance on how to realise a vision of sustainable tourism. There is a lack of consideration of how the socio-economic and cultural context affects sustainable tourism. The evidence suggests that sustainable tourism in Cambodia is questionable until fundamental economic, social capacity and policy issues are addressed, along with greater emphasis given to the tourism system's demand side.     

The Natural State

ABSTRACT

Australian nature-based tourism and ecotourism have become popular forms of recreational activity. Tasmania attracts twice the Australian national average number of nature-based tourists and ecotourists (thirty per cent). The growth of this tourism sector has prompted measures to ensure that experiences are of high quality, and that environmental impacts are adequately managed. ISO 14000 is an environmental management and certification system often utilised as an environmental management system standard within various industries, but has not been widely applied to the Australian tourism industry. The Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) represents the most significant accreditation measure within Australia at present. This paper assesses the relevance of NEAP in the Tasmanian nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry through in-depth interviews with a key informant group and a comparative analysis of interview data. The paper introduces nature-based tourism and ecotourism definitions and discusses the growing relevance of ecotourism accreditation. The paper argues that NEAP is relevant to the Tasmanian nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry, where the quality of the natural environment forms the central focus for such experiences. Furthermore, the paper argues that NEAP can assist in supporting the State's nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry through means such as branding and promotion. However, problems exist in relation to financial issues between NEAP and operators, and the perceived overlap of NEAP with the widely implemented Tourism Council Tasmania Accreditation Program. Thus, financial issues need to be addressed by the Ecotourism Association of Australia in association with Australian Commonwealth Government subsidisation. The degree of overlap between the two programs can be effectively addressed through industry cooperation. The paper also suggests that stronger branding and promotion of NEAP can be achieved through increased industry involvement by Tourism Tasmania.     

The influence of artistically recreated nature on the image of tourist destinations: Lanzarote's art,cultural and tourism visitor centres and their links to sustainable tourism marketing

Can distinctive natural assets in tourist destinations be artistically recreated and used to improve destination image and attract more visitors? This paper analyses the formation of the tourist image based on artistically recreated local nature icons, and shows how those images can enhance the overall destination image. It focuses on the island of Lanzarote, a destination with its development based on promoting an environmental image founded on the creation of a network of multifunctional, high-quality art, culture and tourism centres exhibiting artistic recreation of its unique environmental assets. The methodology utilizes a questionnaire (n = 453) structural equations modelling approach in which the overall image of the destination is directly dependent on the image of the environmental conditions and indirectly influenced by the image of the artistically recreated centres. Results show that the destination's image is significantly grounded on the image of the art, culture and tourism centres using art based on Lanzarote's natural assets. They suggest that destinations have relevant opportunities to artistically enhance natural assets to improve their tourist image and marketing, that quality multi-functional visitor centres can be important within a sustainable tourism policy, and part of the emerging breadth of approaches taken by sustainable tourism marketing.     

Insights into Sustainable Tourists in Austria: A Data-based A Priori Segmentation Approach

An excellent market-driven way to successfully implement sustainable tourism in a destination is to find a segment of tourists or potential tourists interested in the unique natural beauty of the destination, willing to preserve it, and who are also highly attractive in terms of high expenditures, long stays, high return rate, high recommendation rate etc. The first step in seeking these visitors is through investigation of sustainable market segments. So far, only a few studies have systematically searched for 'eco-segments'or sustainable tourist groups and described them. This paper reviews the usefulness of such approaches, examines past studies investigating potential target segments and describes the group of summer tourists in Austria who care about maintaining the natural environment. The results suggest that this group of visitors has some highly attractive characteristics and is very large, thus offering a sound basis for additional sustainable niche segment creation.     

Ecotourism in Bhutan: Extending its Benefits to Rural Communities

This paper analyzes the present state of tourism in Bhutan and considers the prospects for the development of ecotourism. Empirical surveys of tour operators and foreign tourists indicate that visitors interested in the natural beauty of the Himalayan kingdom stay longer than those who come to experience its culture. By attracting younger tourists, ecotourism could contribute to the goals of Gross National Happiness. The majority of tourists and tour operators are in favor of ecotourism activities that might benefit local rural communities. The prerequisite for a substantial promotion of ecotourism would be changes in the Bhutanese tourism policy to encourage the diversification of tourism products.     

Alternative Tourism and Sustainable Development in Kenya

This article examines alternative tourism and especially the form dubbed ecotourism and assesses its prospects for sustainable development in Kenya. It also considers community participation in ecotourism, the Kenya government policy on ecotourism, and the initiatives to yield sustainable development in the country. The findings show that biodiversity conservation encourages and supports tourism which, in turn, provides money for conservation efforts and local development programmes. However, ecotourism has not necessarily led to small scale, locally owned tourism enterprises expected in the ecotourism model. The analysis shows nevertheless that alternative tourism development has drawn attention to the role of local people in biodiversity conservation, the basis of ecotourism. Hopefully, this will lead to greater local participation in the ownership, management and control of ecotourism enterprises.     

Accurately Identifying and Comparing Sustainable Tourists,Nature-Based Tourists,and Ecotourists on the Basis of Their Environmental Concerns

The current study, using a confirmatory factor analysis, developed a multi-item scale consisting of 3 dimensions that exhibited necessary reliability and validity. Based on this Nature-Based, Eco- and Sustainable Tourists (NES)-scale, and by utilizing a cluster analysis, the study identifies 4 distinct segments among a sample of the Norwegian population: nature-based tourists, ecotourists, sustainable tourists, and mass tourists. The analysis shows that while the ecotourists make up the largest segment, the mass tourists represent the smallest segment. Using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), the resulting 4 segments are later compared on the basis of their environmental concerns. The findings suggest that the ecotourists are the most environmentally concerned whereas the mass tourists are the least environmentally concerned. Finally, based upon the overall findings of the study, a new inductive model is developed. This model highlights the interaction between different types of alternative tourists and mass tourists, by showing, inter alia, that nature-based tourism has over the years become a form of mass tourism. Theoretical and practical implications of the study are also discussed.     

Western environmental values and nature-based tourism in Kenya

Kenya is one of the leading tourist destinations in Africa. Most of the country's tourism is based on nature attractions. About 10% of the country has been set aside for wildlife conservation and the promotion of nature-based tourism. This study gives a historical evaluation of western environmental values and how these values influence wildlife conservation and the development of nature-based tourism in Kenya. Also, a comparative analysis is conducted between western environmental values and rural peasants' environmental perceptions.     

Ecotourism in Bako National Park,Borneo: Visitors’ Perspectives on Environmental Impacts and their Management

Ecotourism potentially provides a sustainable approach to development in Malaysia. However, to realise this potential the adverse effects of visitor activity and associated infrastructure on the natural environment and the tourism experience must be identified to guide management actions and thus to sustain the resources on which ecotourism ultimately depends. This study, conducted in Bako National Park on the island of Borneo, reports one of the first efforts to identify the impacts of ecotourism in Malaysia from the perspective of visitors. Environmental conditions of greatest influence on visitors’ experiences included litter and biophysical conditions such as soil erosion and vegetation damage. These conditions were of greater concern to visitors than social conditions, such as the number of people. These results suggest that management efforts can be directed towards indicators of greatest concern such as litter, soil erosion and vegetation damage. The broad support given by those surveyed for a range of management actions provides managers with a choice of strategies to sustain ecotourism in Bako National Park. This study, with its sociopolitical approach, contributes to a greater understanding of the implications of the ecotourist experience for ecotourism management in Malaysia.     

Tourism on organic farms in South Korea: a new form of ecotourism≟

This exploratory research examines the potential of organic farms in South Korea to enable a distinct form of environmentally sustainable tourism. Case studies involving in-depth interviews with three organic farms and content analysis of the websites of 38 organic farms offering tourism-related activities were conducted. An analytical framework using key ecotourism principles was developed to guide an evaluation of activities and practices on the farms. Organic farmers in the study were concerned about ecological conditions on their land, possessed close ties to that land, and employed related knowledge to help preserve natural habitat and minimize adverse environmental impacts. Social–cultural gains were evident, for both visitors and local inhabitants. It is argued that this type of tourism on organic farms may be a potentially new form of ecotourism (eco-organic farm tourism). The study suggests that ecotourism principles may be usefully applied as a guiding sustainability paradigm for small scale, organic farms engaging in tourism. This new tourism type can be employed as a strategy for facilitating sustainable agriculture, local development, social–cultural and environmental conservation, wellbeing, and learning. Further research needs to be carried out both in Korea and elsewhere to develop this eco-organic farm tourism concept.     

Self-identification of ecotourists

Although ecotourism has frequently been examined in the literature, a consensus has not yet been reached globally as to what constitutes ecotourism. This paper suggests an alternative to the continuing debates among tourism researchers regarding their own views on what ecotourism should be and on who ecotourists are. Instead, this paper contends that tourists’ own self-interpretations of ecotourism and self-identification of ecotourists may be a more meaningful and practical way forward. This study examines the ecotourism market for West Virginia by applying this self-identification approach. The results indicate that 39.4% of respondents knew about the term “ecotourism”, and that 22.2% or 12.0 million of the state's visitors in 2008 were ecotourists. By comparison to non-ecotourists, these self-identified ecotourists were found to be more environmentally concerned and responsible, more dedicated to nature, more supportive of tourism accreditation programs, and more likely to patronize businesses with good environmental practices, even at a higher cost. This has significant implications for sustainable tourism development in the state as these findings can help to convince tourism operators who may see the potential benefits through being involved in a certification program proposed by West Virginia Department of Protection. Research limitations and future research needs are discussed.     

Relationships Among Perceived Value,Satisfaction, and Loyalty: Community-Based Ecotourism in Korea

Community-based ecotourism (CBE) is a significant segment of the rapidly growing tourism industry in Korea. This study examines the relationships among perceived value, satisfaction, and destination loyalty of CBE tourists in Korea. Data were collected from 254 visitors (aged 20 years and over) of six CBE villages. The Linear Structural Relationships (LISREL) statistical package was used for the analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis identified four dimensions of perceived value from 14 variables: economic, functional, emotional, and social. Through structural equation modeling (SEM), functional, social, and emotional value was found to have positive effects on overall value. Further, overall value and tourist satisfaction were a significant antecedent of destination loyalty. The empirical results indicate that a varied experiential program must be developed to increase the efficiency of CBE as a sustainable development tool.     

Ecotourism and Simulated Attractions: Tourists' Attitudes Towards Integrated Sites in a Desert Area

This paper examines the attitudes of tourists towards a conceptual planning approach, which combines elements of ecotourism with themed and simulated attractions for sustainable tourism development in desert areas. Based on a survey of 453 tourists, the study examines respondents' preferences regarding the suggested contents and facilities of tourist attractions to be developed in the Israeli desert area of the Negev. The findings indicate that the respondents do not necessarily see contradictions between the seemingly irreconcilable ecotourism elements and themed simulations. They expressed clear preference for the development of sites with appropriate infrastructure and themed simulations that preserve local nature and culture. The findings are discussed within the frameworks of ecotourism, post-modern tourism, and tourism development in desert areas.     

A geography of ecotourism in Cambodia: regions,patterns, and potentials

Tourism visits to Cambodia have expanded rapidly, with over 5 million visitors arriving in the country by 2016. Angkor Wat remains the primary tourist attraction, but increasing numbers of tourists also visit ecotourism destinations. This study draws on Weaver’s [(2002). Asian ecotourism: Patterns and themes. Tourism Geographies, 4(2), 153–172] spatial and structural analysis of ecotourism in Asia as an organizing framework to develop a geography of ecotourism in Cambodia. In a comprehensive review of academic publications, reports, online ecotourism clearinghouses, and project websites, 30 Cambodian ecotourism sites were identified based on 5 ecotourism criteria. A content analysis of ecotourism project websites was then conducted to group together ecotourism sites with common characteristics in particular geographic regions. Each site was plotted on a Google Terrain map, and local and regional terrain, land cover, transport, and other physical features were analyzed, supplemented by detailed geographical data from Google Panorama, Earth, and Satellite map functions. Three relatively distinct ecotourism regions were identified: the (a) mangrove and rainforest region, (b) highland trekking region, and (c) wetlands and waterways region. For each region, tourism gateways and ecotourism development challenges and potentials are elaborated. The paper concludes with a discussion of study findings and their implications for ecotourism development in Cambodia.     

Involvement and opinion leadership in tourism

Nature-based tourism, science tourism, and ecotourism are some of the emerging and growing trends in special-interest tourism. This study utilized a southeastern sample of the United States who had an interest in travel and the environment. A modified Dillman total design method survey was used to collect the data. The study demonstrated that widely used concepts of marketing are applicable for nature-based tourism. Results indicate that highly involved nature-oriented travelers tend to be more receptive to information concerning the travel product or destination and spread that information willingly. Findings of this study suggest that opinion leaders take more trips and use slightly more information sources.