The Potential of Interdisciplinarity for Leisure Research

Abstract

Knowledge about preferences for campsite attributes is needed so that management strategies can be guided by users’ preferences for settings and experiences. However, results of campsite choice studies have shown great variability across settings. Reexamination of this research shows a hierarchical typology of attributes: most important are necessity attributes, which supply basic camping needs, followed by experience attributes, which enhance preferred experience outcomes, and finally amenity attributes, which are relatively minor but can improve site quality. A survey of Whitewater boaters confirmed the predicted order of attribute importance and generally supported the proposed definitions of attribute types. A tentative model of campsite choice is offered in which sites are evaluated first for their ability to provide necessity attributes, then experience attributes, and finally, if more than one potential site remains, amenity attributes. Constraints may cut the evaluation process short anytime after the initial (necessity attribute) stage.     

Environmental Impact of Ecotourism in Kibale National Park,Uganda

A study was carried out in Kibale National Park in Uganda to assess the impacts of recreation on camping sites and nature trails in the wet and dry seasons. Nine physical parameters were examined at nine camping sites and four parameters on nature trails. All camping sites experienced more or less similar degradation in the wet and dry seasons with the impact in the dry season being slightly higher. The nature trails were under moderate erosion, which was highly associated with slope and vegetation. The impacts in Kibale National Park were in many ways similar to those reported in the national parks of the UK, USA and Costa Rica. It was concluded that the impact was clearly the result of higher use frequency following the recent increase in the number of tourists to Kibale National Park. The need for an early determination of the recreation-carrying capacity as well as research on impact that incorporates visitor numbers and use frequency is recommended if ecotourism is to remain sustainable in Kibale National Park.     

The resilience of formal and informal tourism enterprises to disasters: reef tourism in Phuket,Thailand

This paper explores the resilience of vulnerable tourism sectors to disasters in a period of global change and interdependence. The coral reef tourism industry is highly vulnerable to natural disasters and economic and political shocks. The paper also explains why enterprise resilience is central to sustainable tourism management, for economic, socio-cultural and environmental reasons. It extends the concepts of ecological and social resilience to that of enterprise resilience. Using scenarios and interviews with key enterprise staff, the study contrasts the levels of resilience of formal and informal reef tourism enterprises, and the factors associated with the enterprise resilience in Phuket, Thailand, following the 2004 tsunami and the 2008 political crisis. Informal enterprises reported better financial condition in a crisis scenario and higher levels of social capital in the form of government, family and community support than formal enterprises. Formal and informal enterprises both enjoy high lifestyle benefits from reef tourism, which supports resilience. Most formal enterprises had part foreign ownership/management (61%); no informal enterprise had any foreign ownership or management. Management policies supporting reef tourism should consider local nuances and the importance of lifestyle benefits for both formal and informal enterprises, and take steps to enable enterprise flexibility and cost-cutting during crises.     

Solitude Versus Access: A Study of Tradeoffs in Outdoor Recreation Using Indifference Curve Analysis

Tradeoffs are an inherent part of many of the decisions faced by outdoor recreation visitors and managers. For example, decisions concerning the social carrying capacity of popular attraction sites involve potential tradeoffs between limiting visitor use to ensure a high quality experience and allowing high levels of visitor use to ensure that large numbers of visitors retain access to park and outdoor recreation resources. This study uses indifference curve analysis to evaluate the tradeoffs that visitors prefer to make between solitude and access at Delicate Arch, Arches National Park. Study findings facilitate more informed judgments by Arches National Park managers regarding appropriate recreation opportunities at Delicate Arch. Specifically, this research quantifies the tradeoff preferences of visitors to Delicate Arch and provides a theoretically and empirically informed basis for establishing a social carrying capacity for this site.     

Rooted in Place: Understanding Camper Substitution Preferences

This study examines recreationists using primitive roadside campsites on Forest Preserve lands in the Adirondack Park. The primary objective of this study was to explore psychological factors (experience use history, enduring involvement, place bonding) that contribute to visitors’ substitution preferences and their willingness to make a resource substitution for roadside camping in the Adirondack Park. Two discriminant function analyses indicate that experience use history variables and the rootedness dimension of place bonding can significantly discriminate between substitution preference groups and willingness to substitute for roadside camping. Enduring involvement in the activity of camping, however, was not a significant predictor of substitution variables.     

Tourism stakeholders’ perceptions of national park management in Norway

Local tourism firms represent an important stakeholder interest in national parks. The present study examines these stakeholders’ perceptions of management processes and their assessments of the resulting management plans and operations. This research is based on qualitative interviews with representatives of tourism businesses in two different national park settings in Norway – Rondane National Park and Jotunheimen National Park. The findings illustrate that despite their general support for the national park status, the local tourism stakeholders interviewed had experienced only minor involvement in the management planning process, and had had very little influence in the final management decisions. They believed that opportunities for business operations were lacking due to excessive management restrictions, and that managers lacked competence with regard to business management and tourism development issues. In addition, they thought that management authorities should more explicitly include sustainable tourism development in their visions and goals. Based on the findings, it is assumed that there is potential for local tourism operators to take greater responsibility in planning processes and management operations. It is concluded that measures should be taken to foster durable social links and trustworthy planning partnerships between responsible managers and local tourism stakeholders in the two national parks.     

Using Video Surveys to Access Dispersed Backcountry Visitors' Norms

Image Capture Technology (ICT), or the capture and editing of photographic images using microcomputers, has been used in a variety of settings to assess social and ecological impacts. This study illustrates the application of this technology in a VHS videotape survey designed to assess visitors' norms for varying numbers of watercraft, sounds from aircraft and motorized boats, and the acceptability of floating outfitting camps. Acceptability ratings for three setting contexts (access areas, attraction sites, and wild places) within Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, British Columbia, were evaluated. Methodologically, use of the videotape survey proved to be a cost effective vehicle in evaluating both sight and sound impacts. More than 75% of the respondents indicated that the images served as useful reminders of their visit and helped them articulate their norms. These normative standards were consistent with other studies conducted in backcountry areas. The implications of this technology for addressing natural resource management issues are discussed.     

Recreation Specialization and Site Choice Among Vehicle-Based Campers

Recreation specialization theory predicts that individuals will differ in their physical, management, and social setting preferences. Few studies, however, support the hypothesis that individuals choose recreation settings consistent with their level of specialization. This study examined the association between behavioral, cognitive, and affective dimensions of specialization and site choice among vehicle-based campers in Alberta, Canada. Data were collected using on-site interviews and a mail survey. Campers at unmanaged sites (no facilities and services) had higher centrality scores, had greater familiarity with the site and more experience with unmanaged sites, and a higher level of bush skill than campers at managed sites. An ordered multinomial logit model showed that the more familiar individuals were with the site and campground type, the higher the level of bush skill, and the more important and central camping was in an individual's life, the greater the probability of choosing a campground type that required a higher degree of self-reliance and decreased dependence on facilities and services. Higher household income increased the probability of camping at managed sites, suggesting that income might limit the expression of specialization by constraining choice to affordable options.     

The effect of internal information generation and dissemination on casino employee work related behaviors

In this study, we investigate the effect of internal information generation and dissemination on employee work related behaviors. Information generation and dissemination practices are of particular importance in the gaming industry because they are critical to service performance. However, the extant literature lacks research in addressing how such practices affect employee work related behaviors including work attitude, compliance, and retention. Referring to existing literature on internal marketing, knowledge management, and social exchange theory, we hypothesize a number of relationships between forms of internal information generation and dissemination, employee work attitude, compliance, and retention. Results of a survey carried out in a world-class gaming metropolis indicate that both informal and formal information generation significantly influence information dissemination. And, information dissemination and informal information generation are associated with employee work related behaviors. We discuss the implications for casino management and research as concluding remarks.     

Tradeoffs Among Social,Resource, and Management Attributes of the Denali Wilderness Experience: A Contextual Approach to Normative Research

Wilderness experiences are thought to be comprised of three primary dimensions, including social, resource, and management conditions. Decisions about how to manage wilderness recreation in Denali National Park and Preserve involve potential tradeoffs among these conditions. This study extends the normative approach to wilderness research by developing and applying a decision-making model that considers social, resource, and managerial attributes of the wilderness experience within a more holistic context. Specifically, stated choice analysis is used to evaluate the choices overnight wilderness visitors make when faced with hypothetical tradeoffs among the conditions of social, resource, and management attributes of the Denali wilderness. Study findings offer normative, but contextually informed empirical guidance in formulating indicators and standards of quality for the wilderness experience.     

Estimating the Economic Contribution of Visitor Spending in the Kruger National Park to the Regional Economy

Tourism has been labelled the economic driver of the 21st century due to the multiplier effect of tourist spending and the linkage of this industry to almost all other industries. This paper aims to estimate the economic impact of visitor spending in the Kruger National Park. The following objectives are set: (1) to determine the spending pattern of a typical tourist visiting the Kruger National Park, (2) to determine the contribution of tourists visiting the Park to the economy of the region. The methodology used includes both a survey and an input-output analysis. A survey conducted in June 2002 was used to determine the spending pattern of tourists visiting the Park and together with additional secondary data, were used to determine the contribution of visitor spending in the Park to the economy of the region. The results of the survey indicate that tourists spend most of their money on accommodation and transport in the Park. The South African National Parks (SANP) has created an environment that induces spending, but recommendations are made to encourage even more spending by tourists, thereby enhancing the economic benefits of the Park.     

Value orientations and heritage tourism management at Petra Archaeological Park,Jordan

Involving different stakeholders, including tourists, in managing tourism and understanding their value orientations are key concepts to achieve sustainability of heritage tourism. However, tourists have been mostly ignored in managing heritage attractions. Given the importance of values in heritage tourism management, and the different tourists' preferences toward management actions, this article aims to explore the value orientations of different types of tourists at Petra Archaeological Park, and how these values influence their management actions preferences. Majority of the tourists were preservation value oriented, and they preferred direct management actions rather than indirect actions. Results indicated that whenever the level of the importance of heritage tourism increases in tourists' trip motivations, tourists tend to be more preservation value oriented and support direct management actions.     

Ecotourism in Bako National Park,Borneo: Visitors’ Perspectives on Environmental Impacts and their Management

Ecotourism potentially provides a sustainable approach to development in Malaysia. However, to realise this potential the adverse effects of visitor activity and associated infrastructure on the natural environment and the tourism experience must be identified to guide management actions and thus to sustain the resources on which ecotourism ultimately depends. This study, conducted in Bako National Park on the island of Borneo, reports one of the first efforts to identify the impacts of ecotourism in Malaysia from the perspective of visitors. Environmental conditions of greatest influence on visitors’ experiences included litter and biophysical conditions such as soil erosion and vegetation damage. These conditions were of greater concern to visitors than social conditions, such as the number of people. These results suggest that management efforts can be directed towards indicators of greatest concern such as litter, soil erosion and vegetation damage. The broad support given by those surveyed for a range of management actions provides managers with a choice of strategies to sustain ecotourism in Bako National Park. This study, with its sociopolitical approach, contributes to a greater understanding of the implications of the ecotourist experience for ecotourism management in Malaysia.     

The impact of fees on visitation of national parks

This study assesses the impact of the change in revenue management policy (namely the increased public land recreation fees) on the number of domestic and international travelers that visit the large, mostly well-known US National Park System sites. Baseline, multivariate demand models were developed based on secondary data from 10 years prior to the fee policy change, and were used to predict demand in years following the fee change. The predictions of the baseline demand models were then compared to the sites’ actual visitation. The differences between the actual and the predicted visitation are statistically significant, indicating that the change in the federal agencies’ revenue management policy might have had an adverse effect on the visitation of the largest US national sites.     

Indigenous and democratic decision-making: issues from community-based ecotourism in the Boumā National Heritage Park,Fiji

Participatory development literature involving community-based ecotourism management (CBEM) has only recently addressed issues pertaining to indigenous governance and decision-making systems. This paper contributes to sustainable tourism by presenting local decision-making practices and issues arising from the perspective of the members of one village in the Boumā National Heritage Park, Fiji. It shows that introduced democratic decision-making systems may not contribute to political empowerment in CBEM and can cause difficult situations. It is argued that greater attention to local systems of governance is required if tourism practitioners are to fully understand decision-making and participation in CBEM. The paper also offers a culturally appropriate methodology that may produce more meaningful outcomes for sustainable tourism research in indigenous Fijian contexts, and in other contexts worldwide. It argues that levels of empowerment should not just be treated as the outcome but as a part of the process of tourism development. It explores the core Fijian cultural concept of vanua as a way of life, involving interrelated social, ecological and spiritual elements. An emic perspective utilising informal talanoa (discussions) is used and examined, along with the roles of kin groups, village spokesmen and clan systems, and their relationship with western business decision-making practices.     

Who visits the Kruger National Park,and why? identifying target markets

This study identified viable target markets at South Africa’s most renowned nature reserve, the Kruger National Park, using market segmentation based on demographic characteristics. International, domestic, and local nature tourists were surveyed and categorized into three distinct clusters. The results show that block clustering based on visitors’ demographic characteristics is a useful research tool for producing a clear visitor profile and showed that during the process of market segmentation it is necessary to establish the relationship between a particular segmentation base and visitors' behavior and preferences. This is useful information for managing this Park, and other similar parks, more sustainably.     

Tourist satisfaction in relation to attractions and implications for conservation in the protected areas of the Northern Circuit,Tanzania

This study assessed tourist satisfaction and its links with tourist attractions and infrastructure at the following six protected areas on the Northern Tourist Circuit of Tanzania: Tarangire National Park, Lake Manyara National Park, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Serengeti National Park, Arusha National Park, and Mt. Kilimanjaro National Park. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 185 tourists visiting the protected areas. Satisfaction ratings for the Northern Circuit were high, with 86% of tourists willing to be repeat visitors. Tourists were attracted primarily to wildlife viewing. Although most tourists were not influenced to visit the region by indigenous culture or physical features, 81% of tourists noted that non-wildlife attractions enhanced their tourist experience. A range of ways to develop more sustainable forms of tourism emerged from the work, including lengthening stays, guide/driver capacity building, and partnership working with tour operators to improve marketing, increase satisfaction rates, and diversify the product.     

On bringing people and park together through ecotourism: The Nanda Devi National Park,India

While the need for linking park with people was heavily stressed both at the World Conservation Strategy (1980) and the World Congress of National Parks (1982), the conflict has remained unresolved, particularly in the developing nations. The hackneyed question, who is more important – monkey or man - is still argued. Admittedly, human beings are as much a part of nature as any other animal or plant species. Indeed, it is neither desirable nor feasible to alienate poor people, living in and around parks and protected areas. Modern methods of judicious park management now point more to Integrated Conservation Development Projects (ICDP) than resorting to a traditional “fences and fines” approach. ICDP ensures the conservation of biological diversity by reconciling the management of park with social and economic needs of the local people, who have limited access to resources and few alternative means of livelihood. Paradoxically, these people bear substantial costs – as a result of lost access – while receiving little in return. Nanda Devi National Park in Uttaranchal (India) presents an unsavory example of people and park relationship. It is India's highest park after Kangchendzongha (Sikkim). Characterized by high altitude ecology, the park (625?sq.?km) is profoundly rich in biodiversity, mountain-lores and mythologies. Indigenous communities, particularly Bhotias, have enriched the landscape by their bizarre ways of life. After Tilman and Shipston's successful ascent (1936) of Nanda Devi peak (7817?m), an era of mountaineering and trekking ensued which resulted in degradation of fragile Himalayan environment. Poaching of musk deer and herb smuggling also raised alarm. Considering the dire conservation needs for preserving genetic resources and diversity of species, the area was notified as a National Park in 1982. Subsequently, the park was closed for ecological quarantine. Later it was declared a Biosphere Reserve (1988) and inscribed asa World Heritage Site in 1992. Customary to Third World practices, the park emphasized a policing role excluding local people, displacing them arbitrarily with meager or little compensation for their losses of livelihood. Ban on tourism activities further added to their problem of life and living. The paper discusses the cleavage of park and people and argues that development of sound ecotourism can resolve this conflict and bring park and people together.     

Communicating the World Heritage brand: visitor awareness of UNESCO's World Heritage symbol and the implications for sites,stakeholders and sustainable management

The World Heritage (WH) brand signals property so irreplaceable that its values must be sustained intact in perpetuity. A primary function of the WH symbol, one element of the WH brand, is to prompt positive visitor emotions and behaviors favored by management agencies. This paper investigates if the symbol communicates any message to viewers. To determine visitor recognition and recall of the WH symbol tested against a variety of variables, 1827 visitors to five WH sites in Queensland, Australia and 712 visitors to the WH part of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, USA were surveyed. Sixty percent of visitors to the Queensland sites and 19% of visitors to the Hawaii site were aware of the site's WH status; 96% of Queensland site visitors, and 99% of Hawaii site visitors could not recall what the WH symbol represented. Park agencies appear to take a laissez-faire attitude to branding, have little interest or capacity to brand properly or have strategically restricted usage of the WH brand to de-clutter their brand landscape. This limits opportunities to transmit to visitors and communities why WH properties should be valued and sustained, with significant implications for the long-term sustainability of WH sites.