World Heritage Listing and the Evolving Issues Related to Tourism and Heritage: Cases from Australia and New Zealand

The relationship between heritage and tourism at Word Heritage Sites is thought to be particularly problematic. Yet, each year more heritage sites gain this status. This paper explores the issues that emerge between tourism and heritage at two heritage sites, one with World Heritage listing and the other embarking on the application process. Interview data were collected in relation to the Royal Exhibition Buildings and Carlton Gardens (REB), Australia and Oamaru's Historic Precinct, New Zealand; secondary data were used to contextualise the findings. The findings of the two case studies indicate that the process, and outcomes, of World Heritage (WH) status influence the nature of the relationship between heritage and tourism. The findings of this case study analysis indicated that prospect of WH listing seems to be a catalyst for decision-making and developing networks between the various stakeholders of heritage and tourism, but heritage stakeholders seem to be grappling for power at this time. Once the listing process is successful, heritage then seems to gain the balance of power, and tourism seems to be less successful in controlling the situation. Further research is warranted on this topic to explore whether the findings from two sites can be generalised to other heritage sites.     

Managing the impacts of dolphin-based tourism through the definition of critical habitats: the case of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.) in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand

Marine ecotourism in New Zealand presents a challenging tourism-environment management context. This is demonstrated in the case of Doubtful Sound (New Zealand) where the recent proliferation of tour operators has brought pressures to bear upon a population of bottlenose dolphins resident in the sound. Strict methodologies are necessary to objectively interpret responses to tourism-induced anthropogenic impacts upon cetaceans. Previous research in this field has established that boat interactions with dolphins in Doubtful Sound affect the behavioural budget of the dolphin population, and that dolphins are more sensitive to interactions with boats when they are resting and to a lesser extent when they are socialising. This article reports on a programme of research that employed observational data to explore the applicability of tourism management techniques grounded in spatial ecology. The data provided scientific evidence that determining critical habitat through spatio-ecological analysis is a powerful tool to protect marine mammals in New Zealand, and elsewhere, from biologically significant tourism-induced impacts. The delineation of multi-levelled marine sanctuaries may, therefore, be an effective approach to managing the impacts of tourism upon marine mammals.     

Chinese management practices in the New Zealand context: the social behaviour of individuals in business outside one's own cultural environment

Among the dilemmas facing tourism and hospitality development internationally is the requirement for a greater understanding of each other's culture, and how this background of difference affects business between various parties. Many texts and theorists have identified factors aligned to family values that affect the social behavior of individuals when conducting business between Eastern and Western managers. This paper and case study draws upon the relationship and experiences of a segment of Chinese businessmen within the New Zealand hotel, tourism and business sectors. The businessmen were two international “hoteliers” who currently own properties in New Zealand, and also a Chinese investment adviser, who has visited New Zealand representing foreign investors. The feedback to date indicates that research into Chinese management practices within the hospitality industry in New Zealand is very limited, with little access to past research in this field.     

The Closer Economic Relationship Between Australia and New Zealand:

The closer economic relationship trade agreement (CER) between Australia and New Zealand has substantial implications for travel and tourism in the two countries. This study provides a discussion of the development of new branding strategies at both the inter and international level. In addition, New Zealand appears set to benefit greatly from its improved access to the much larger Australian market.     

Ecological restoration in Aotearoa New Zealand: Contrasting tourist conservation narratives

Aotearoa/New Zealand is a hotspot of threatened biodiversity. In recent years, a system of local/regional eco-sanctuaries has been developed, which now play a critical role in the intensive management of endangered endemic species as part of the wider restoration of New Zealand's indigenous biodiversity. Many of these projects have harnessed tourism as an important revenue stream to fund ecological restoration. Theoretically informed by the field of environmental philosophy and drawing upon the concept of ‘conservation narratives’, this paper aims to explore international visitors' perceptions of ecological restoration and experiences in New Zealand eco-sanctuaries using flash interviews informed by photo-elicitation. The findings reveal disparate interpretations of biodiversity and contrasting conservation narratives that underpin diverse visitor experiences at New Zealand eco-sanctuaries.     

Willing Workers on Organic Farms (WWOOF): A Neglected Aspect of Farm Tourism in New Zealand

Despite the importance of farm tourism to many rural communities in New Zealand, there has been no attention given to the contribution of the Willing Workers on Organic Farms (WWOOF) venture to farm tourism in New Zealand. While the primary objective of the venture is organic farming, the facilitation of tourism experiences on the farm remains an additional concern among WWOOF hosts. This paper is based on a postal survey of 67 WWOOF hosts located in four main regions of New Zealand's South Island. The study sought to understand the management of WWOOF farms in relation to their role in providing tourism opportunities, to determine the reasons for becoming a WWOOF host, to provide a demographic profile of hosts and evaluate the environmental values and attitudes held by hosts. The study findings highlighted that WWOOF hosting has over recent years provided an increasing contribution to farm tourism in New Zealand. The study also provided some evidence to suggest that the motivations and experiences of WWOOF hosts were notably different from that of other farm tourism hosts. In particular, environmental ethic and shared knowledge of organic practices were considered essential.     

The Impact of Sports Events on Inbound Tourism in New Zealand

Sports events are an instrument of destination marketing for host countries. Over the past 40 years, New Zealand has held sports events such as the Commonwealth Games and the America's Cup and many international tourists have visited New Zealand during these events. While past studies have examined the economic value of such tourism at a generic level, the impact of mega sports events at more specific levels is unknown. Thus, this study examines not only the impact of eight mega sports events upon New Zealand's international tourist arrivals over the 1983–2005 period at the overall level, but also the number of tourist arrivals from participating countries for each event. Results suggest that the 1990 Commonwealth Games, the 2000 America's Cup (yachting) and the 2005 British and Irish Lions Tour (rugby) had a significant impact on tourist arrivals overall and on arrivals from each participating country.     

Comparative assessment of tourist generating markets for New Zealand

Portfolio analysis has become a widely used strategic planning tool in many industries during the past decade. Strategic decisions in the tourism industry include issues such as which markets are most attractive (e.g. have greatest visitor expenditure potential); in which markets are a specific country's “products” most competitive; how promotional budgets should be allocated for greatest effectiveness; and what the promotional message should convey. Industry Attractiveness Analysis—a flexible variety of portfolio analysis—has been applied to the generating countries which supply tourists to New Zealand in an illustrative case study. Both national level and individual company applications are described and illustrated in 3 × 3 matrix form. These diagrams are, in themselves, a good communication mechanism which encourages rational, strategic thinking about managerial decisions and resources allocations. Past, present, and future situations can be portrayed in a graphically useful manner.     

Towards sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand: Monitoring local government planning under the Resource Management Act

In the light of the increasing pace and scale of tourism activity in New Zealand, the concept of sustainable tourism has become a key ingredient in the nation's tourism strategy. This paper explores sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand at the level of local government, and in particular, focuses on the implementation of the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) as a mechanism for achieving sustainable tourism. Using the findings of a survey of Regional Councils and Territorial Local Authorities, the paper explores public sector planning responses to tourism impacts and sustainability concerns in New Zealand. The paper extends the earlier work of Page and Thorn (1997. Towards sustainable tourism planning in New Zealand: public sector planning responses. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5(1): 59-77; 2002. Towards sustainable tourism development and planning in New Zealand: the public sector response revisited. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 10(3): 222-238), which identified major issues of concern at local council level with regard to tourism impacts and argued the need for a national vision for tourism to ensure that the RMA achieved its original goals. Since then, a national tourism strategy has been published and changes in legislation have further empowered local authorities to further progress the sustainability agenda. This paper examines these developments and the ensuing implications, concluding that significant progress has been made in developing tourism policies at the local level, but that a number of constraints and issues limit the development of New Zealand as a sustainable destination.     

Demand elasticity estimates for New Zealand tourism

Demand elasticities for New Zealand tourism are estimated for 16 different international visitor segments. Segments are differentiated by origin, purpose of visit, and travel style. Elasticities for both international visitor arrivals and on-the-ground expenditure per arrival are estimated for each segment using time-series data. In general, on-the-ground consumption per arrival is more price sensitive than number of arrivals, and Asian market segments are found to be more price sensitive, both in terms of arrivals and on-the-ground expenditure, compared to international visitors from other regions. An application of the results is presented giving the total effect of exchange rate changes on expenditure by international visitors in New Zealand, and management implications are discussed.     

Integrating agroecology and sustainable tourism: applying geodesign to farm management in Aotearoa New Zealand

Abstract

In Aotearoa New Zealand, Māori land is frequently owned by local communities and managed by trusts. For such arrangements on rural holdings, land managers often wish both to provide for their communities and implement agricultural management practices in a culturally responsive manner. Agroecology offers an alternative model of land management and provides opportunities for the development of visitor programmes to learn about and observe traditional practices. This paper reports on the integration of agroecology and tourism on a working farm in Te Wai Pounamu South Island, Aotearoa New Zealand. The programme successfully applied spatial analysis in a geographical information system (GIS) within an iterative geodesign framework to plan a route for visitor access across the farm, with suitable areas identified for information platforms located strategically along the way. These agritourism related features were visually communicated through maps generated by the GIS. Such visualisation makes the possible consequences of change more accessible and understandable to decision makers. As well as satisfying the need to verify the approach empirically, there are plans underway to apply GIS in this way to other similarly managed farms in Aotearoa New Zealand.

• Highlights:

• Iterative geodesign approach used to evolve sites for access paths and information platforms

• Approach is of public interest, hence the need for planning farm access facilities for tourists

• Agroecology-based plan for managing a traditionally run farm in Aotearoa New Zealand

• Local cultural values addressed by GIS for positive environmental and economic impact

     

他山之石可以攻玉——赴澳、新职业教育考察感悟

澳、新两国的职业技术教育管理及办学质量处于世界前列,享誉世界。该文简要介绍了赴澳、新两国考察职业技术教育的情况,详细分析了澳、新职教的办学特色,归纳了澳、新职教的五大亮点,以供国内职业技术教育界同行作为办学的借鉴与参考。     

The Non-Equity Entry Mode Choices of International Hotel Organizations in New Zealand

ABSTRACT

Research on the non-equity entry mode choices of service firms is relatively limited. We use transaction cost economics and organizational capability perspectives to examine the determinants of choosing between franchising and management contracts in the hotel industry. In our analysis of four international hotel organizations operating in New Zealand, we found that both asset specificity and imperfect imitability helped in explaining the choice between franchising and management contracts. Behavioral uncertainty and host country management capabilities explained the entry mode choice of some hotel organizations but were not applicable for others that entered New Zealand via international strategic alliances or used strata titles. Finally, environmental uncertainty and the development of New Zealand’s business environment had a limited effect on choosing between franchising and management contracts.     

Bicycle tourism in the South Island of New Zealand: planning and management issues

Several emerging trends are pointing to the re-emergence of the bicycle as an important leisure and recreational transportation mode. Yet little research has been conducted into cycling within a tourism context. This paper examines the increasing phenomenon of bicycle tourism by defining bicycle tourists and bicycle tourism from a demand perspective, and describes the characteristics, infrastructure and travel behaviour associated with bicycle tourism through the examination of data collected on independent cycle tourists in the South Island of New Zealand. It illustrates through performance-importance analysis, the areas of major concern in the planning and management of bicycle tourism, and recommends that a demand side perspective is needed if the supply side of the industry is to be sustainable in the future. It makes recommendations for the future planning and management of bicycle tourism in New Zealand that may be of interest to countries currently developing cycle tourism.     

Caves,Cultures and Crowds: Carrying Capacity Meets Consumer Sovereignty

This paper draws on research at Waitomo Caves in New Zealand to argue that the re-emergenceofplace as apolitical perspective has some important implicationsforthe concept of consumer sovereignty in tourism. The Waitomo case study identifies that differences in perceptions of crowding between various nationality groups produces a displacement of visitors less tolerant to crowding, in this case domestic tourists. It is argued that a failure to address the issue of domestic visitor displacement in the wider policy arena results in thematerialisation of the issues at the local level. Here, demands for indigenous sovereignty over heritage sites complicates the otherwise uninterrupted flow of consumer sovereignty via the market-driven management model.     

Seasonality in New Zealand Winery Visitation

Summary

Seasonality is a major issue in tourism management; however, the implications of seasonality for wine tourism have only received limited attention. Arguably, because of the interaction between seasonal patterns of consumer demand with the inherent seasonality of vineyard work and wine supply means that seasonality issues may be even more problematic for wine tourism than other forms of tourism. The article provides the results of a national study on wine tourism in New Zealand. The article highlights the seasonal nature of visitation and suggests a number of marketing strategies by which some of the effects of seasonality may be overcome in terms of both target markets and the improved management of human resources.     

TOURISM AND CULTURAL PROXIMITY: Examples from New Zealand

While tourism products based on Maori culture are popular among some overseas tourists to New Zealand, there has been little research as to their appeal to the domestic market. This paper discusses notions of indigenous tourism and the role of cultural and spatial difference in European conceptualizations of the exotic other. It argues that although there is a common cultural antecedence between non-Maori and European culture, the lack of spatial distance between Maori and tourists means that European New Zealanders are not drawn to Maori culture as an attraction in the manner that those from Europe and North America are. The paper discusses “kiwi culture” and familiarity as determinants of tourist demand.     

Transgenerational place attachment in a New Zealand seaside destination

Drawing on interviews with 84 residents in Raglan, New Zealand, the study examines the impact of tourism on the lives of those residents. It uses a cross-generational analysis of attachment of place across three classifications of residents – those born in the town, those who left and returned, and those with no prior connection before taking up residency. Findings indicate that despite the change and uncertainty exacerbated by tourism development experienced in daily life, different generations of residents share a sense of “emotional home” towards the place and its community. The study is based on thematic analysis aided by the use of narrative interpretation and co-occurrence measures to describe differences and similarities between the generations.     

Surface Transport Distribution Channels in New Zealand

Abstract

This paper complements recent research on distribution in the airline industry by examining distribution channels for a range of surface transport businesses (coaches, rental cars, campervans, rail and inter-island ferries) in New Zealand. The study takes a national perspective, adopts a supply-side approach and is based on the analysis of information from in-depth interviews with selected providers. Particular emphasis is given to establishing the nature of the channels used and to the factors that contribute to differences and similarities in channel structures from one form of transport or product to another. Three broad classes of channels are identified: direct; conventional travel intermediaries; and local intermediaries. While carriers use multiple channels, broader patterns do emerge related to particular forms of travel and market segments.     

Towards Sustainable Tourism Development and Planning in New Zealand: The Public Sector Response Revisited

This paper reports the findings of a monitoring survey of the extent to which principles of sustainability embodied in New Zealand's Resource Management Act have been addressed by public-sector planners dealing with tourism. The survey extends the earlier research by Dymond (1997) and Page and Thorn (1997) on public-sector planning responses to tourism and sustainability in New Zealand. The study shows that many of the issues raised by these authors have not been addressed, and that the scale and pace of change in tourism is such that planners have seen an escalation of resource consent applications.