Who wins and who loses? Unpacking the “local people” concept in ecotourism: a longitudinal study of community equity in Ankarana,Madagascar

Tourism in the Ankarana protected area, Madagascar, has increased since the early 1990s, linked to growing national and donor interest in conservation and ecotourism. Using a qualitative and longitudinal approach, this analysis focuses on the social impacts of tourist intensification, comparing and contrasting communities on either side of the protected area. As tourist numbers have increased, infrastructure to accommodate them has developed and tour guiding has professionalized. In this process, the locus of tourism shifted from the loosely organized, “grassroots” tourism of the western side of Ankarana to the organized, externally financed, easy-access tourism of the eastern side, with both environmental and social consequences. The paper argues that a concentration and professionalization of ecotourism services within a region can marginalize neighboring human communities even though not necessarily leading to increased overall environmental degradation. It contributes to tourism studies by engaging a political ecology approach to unpack the concept of “local people” through a multi-community study of the ripple effects of ecotourism within its immediately surrounding areas. This study of community equity acknowledges the need for balanced evaluations of tourism's effects. It also recognizes the value of nuanced empirical studies for planning to meet goals of location-specific environmental and socioeconomic sustainability.     

Alternative tourism in Montserrat

Small island states or dependencies have increasingly turned to international mass tourism as a strategy for overcoming their underdeveloped status. However, mounting criticism of this sector has increased the interest in alternative tourism. The Caribbean island of Montserrat is well positioned to implement an ecotourism strategy based on the island's scenic beauty, biodiversity and historical/cultural attributes. This would augment an already unconventional tourism product emphasizing low-density residential tourism. The fact that few tangible initiatives have so far been taken in the direction of ecotourism is not problematic, since careful planning is advisable given the risks inherent in any form of tourism, and given existing and potential problems which could threaten its viability. A Montserrat Heritage Trail network is proposed as the centrepiece of this ecotourism product, while various marketing and institutional initiatives are recommended.     

Ecotourism and Simulated Attractions: Tourists' Attitudes Towards Integrated Sites in a Desert Area

This paper examines the attitudes of tourists towards a conceptual planning approach, which combines elements of ecotourism with themed and simulated attractions for sustainable tourism development in desert areas. Based on a survey of 453 tourists, the study examines respondents' preferences regarding the suggested contents and facilities of tourist attractions to be developed in the Israeli desert area of the Negev. The findings indicate that the respondents do not necessarily see contradictions between the seemingly irreconcilable ecotourism elements and themed simulations. They expressed clear preference for the development of sites with appropriate infrastructure and themed simulations that preserve local nature and culture. The findings are discussed within the frameworks of ecotourism, post-modern tourism, and tourism development in desert areas.     

国外生态旅游研究进展

作为可持续旅游的实现形式，生态旅游一经提出，就迅速引起学术界的极大关注，本文试图对国外生态旅游研究工作进行分析，着重析述生态旅游的兴起、概念与内涵、生态旅游经济价值评估、生态旅游规划以及开发与管理几个方面。     

Ecosystem Tourism: A Resource-based Philosophy for Ecotourism

Ecotourism has become a popular form of tourism development and marketing in the past ten years, often harnessing the growth in public concern over the wise use of natural resources. In most cases, however, impacts on the ecosystems that are the resource base for ecotourism products are either externalised or their consequences incorporated into the natural evolution of tourism products. This paper is an attempt to stimulate debate on the role that more holistic resource management should play in ecotourism developments. We contend that this can only be achieved through an understanding of ecological science. Credible ecotourism must be firmly based in scientific ecological principles that define ecosystem integrity, especially the resilience of ecosystem processes to disturbance. Such tolerance should be the fundamental measurement against which ecotourism products are monitored.We introduce the term 'ecosystem tourism' to summarise this agenda to define truly sustainable ecotourism development.     

The Natural State

ABSTRACT

Australian nature-based tourism and ecotourism have become popular forms of recreational activity. Tasmania attracts twice the Australian national average number of nature-based tourists and ecotourists (thirty per cent). The growth of this tourism sector has prompted measures to ensure that experiences are of high quality, and that environmental impacts are adequately managed. ISO 14000 is an environmental management and certification system often utilised as an environmental management system standard within various industries, but has not been widely applied to the Australian tourism industry. The Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) represents the most significant accreditation measure within Australia at present. This paper assesses the relevance of NEAP in the Tasmanian nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry through in-depth interviews with a key informant group and a comparative analysis of interview data. The paper introduces nature-based tourism and ecotourism definitions and discusses the growing relevance of ecotourism accreditation. The paper argues that NEAP is relevant to the Tasmanian nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry, where the quality of the natural environment forms the central focus for such experiences. Furthermore, the paper argues that NEAP can assist in supporting the State's nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry through means such as branding and promotion. However, problems exist in relation to financial issues between NEAP and operators, and the perceived overlap of NEAP with the widely implemented Tourism Council Tasmania Accreditation Program. Thus, financial issues need to be addressed by the Ecotourism Association of Australia in association with Australian Commonwealth Government subsidisation. The degree of overlap between the two programs can be effectively addressed through industry cooperation. The paper also suggests that stronger branding and promotion of NEAP can be achieved through increased industry involvement by Tourism Tasmania.     

生态旅游概念识别及其比较研究--对中外40个生态旅游概念的定量分析

伴随着生态旅游的快速发展而涌现出的大量生态旅游概念使旅游研究者和旅游利益相关者对生态旅游概念产生了困惑.这种困惑使生态旅游的核心标准和规则在实际的应用中被扭曲和误用.本文运用内容分析的方法,通过对中外当代近10-15年内40个有影响力的生态旅游概念的分析,提炼出生态旅游概念架构所遵循的8个标准规则,它们是:以自然为基础、对保护的贡献、当地社区受益、环境教育、道德规范与责任、可持续性、旅游享受体验和文化.并以这些标准规则为基础,对中外生态旅游的概念进行比较,得出中国未来的生态旅游研究应更加关注旅游目的地管理的结论.     

从《旅游学刊》和《Annals of Tourism Research》的比较看中外旅游研究的异同和趋向

为深入理解中外旅游研究的异同，文章对2000年以来《Annals of Tourism Research》和《旅游学刊》发表的论文进行了比较分析。研究表明中外旅游研究在研究内容、研究方法以及研究思路等方面存在着明显差异。前者侧重于旅游影响、旅游人类学、旅游社会学与生态旅游等方面的研究，而后者涉猎面更广泛，如对旅游经济与管理、旅游资源开发与规划等偏实用领域的关注；此外，前者研究方法以数理统计为多，后者多以描述性的论述为主。研究通过对近期两大中外权威杂志的对比分析，以期对国内旅游研究，以及对《旅游学刊》的未来发展有所裨益。     

Tourism on organic farms in South Korea: a new form of ecotourism≟

This exploratory research examines the potential of organic farms in South Korea to enable a distinct form of environmentally sustainable tourism. Case studies involving in-depth interviews with three organic farms and content analysis of the websites of 38 organic farms offering tourism-related activities were conducted. An analytical framework using key ecotourism principles was developed to guide an evaluation of activities and practices on the farms. Organic farmers in the study were concerned about ecological conditions on their land, possessed close ties to that land, and employed related knowledge to help preserve natural habitat and minimize adverse environmental impacts. Social–cultural gains were evident, for both visitors and local inhabitants. It is argued that this type of tourism on organic farms may be a potentially new form of ecotourism (eco-organic farm tourism). The study suggests that ecotourism principles may be usefully applied as a guiding sustainability paradigm for small scale, organic farms engaging in tourism. This new tourism type can be employed as a strategy for facilitating sustainable agriculture, local development, social–cultural and environmental conservation, wellbeing, and learning. Further research needs to be carried out both in Korea and elsewhere to develop this eco-organic farm tourism concept.     

旅游时间规划概念框架研究

在梳理旅游规划发展历史阶段的基础上,对传统旅游空间规划缺乏对旅游者个体的关注和忽视"时间性"等问题提出了批判,进而在明确旅游时间规划价值导向和逻辑起点的基础上,提出了旅游时间规划的概念模型;详细分析了时间地理学、认知供给理论和旅游者行为学作为基础理论的支撑作用,系统地提出旅游时间规划的时空统一观、时空资源观和时空产品观,并通过理论推导旅游时间规划的概念模型,构建了旅游时间规划的内容体系。最后,研究强调了"旅游时间规划"在旅游产业发展阶段和提升阶段的实践意义,明确旅游时间规划是传统旅游空间规划的补充和修正,而不是与传统规划割裂开来的另外一种规划系统。     

Local perspectives of ecotourism development in Tawushan Nature Reserve, Taiwan

This paper examines local responses to potential ecotourism development in the Tawushan Nature Reserve located in southeastern Taiwan. Community attitude and intention toward four dimensions of ecotourism, including conservation of natural resources, preservation of cultural tradition, sustainable community development, and participation in ecotourism planning and management, were measured. Furthermore, the paper examines whether or not there is congruence between community attitude and intention toward ecotourism development. Analysis is based on data collected using face-to-face questionnaire interviews in two indigenous communities consisting primarily of the Paiwan ethnic group. The study findings show that local people hold generally positive views of the measures necessary to achieve ecotourism; however, their intentions to engage in behaviors to support these measures do not entirely match with their positive views. This suggests that while local residents may support ecotourism development based on international guidelines, their intentions to act will depend on local environmental, social, and politico-economic conditions. It is suggested that issues related to community empowerment, relationship between government and communities, value conflicts introduced by ecotourism development, and the dynamics among and between various community groups will need to be addressed if positive community intention to participate in ecotourism is to be encouraged.     

迈向可持续目标的中国生态旅游发展研究

生态旅游是自然保护地体系建设、国土空间保护利用、美丽中国等重点生态文明工程建设的重要载体。本文对生态旅游发展研究进行了深入分析,探讨了迈向可持续发展目标下中国生态旅游发展研究需要关注的重点领域。研究认为：生态旅游对于联合国可持续发展目标（Sustainable Development Goals, SDG）实现具有多维促进作用,大众生态旅游在现代化管理制度、技术规范和生态文明的中国话语体系中具有较强的适用性。当代中国生态旅游发展具有与以往国外后工业化时期生态旅游完全不同的时代特点,外部环境和关联要素正在不断促使生态旅游发展寻求新的发展路径。自然生态、地域功能、承载能力和经济发展共同勾画出当代中国生态旅游的发展图景,未来研究需要建立以资源环境容量为底线、以生态游憩机会图谱和时空匹配为规律、以空间治理和现代化管控为提升、以强约束低损耗的政策和技术标准为配套的四位一体发展体系,从而为中国实现生态环境严格保护和经济社会可持续发展多元目标提供支撑。     

Motivational and Behavioral Profiling of Visitors to Forest-based Recreational Destinations in Sri Lanka

The tourism industry plays a key role in regional and destination development. As negative environmental and socio-cultural impacts of mass tourism become more common, the appeal of alternative forms of tourism, especially ecotourism, continues to increase. With rising demand, ecotourism operators are facing the task of meeting expectations of diverse consumers of ecotourism products. Accordingly, the need to define and distinguish ecotourists from other types of tourists has become important. The importance of using a behavioral approach to distinguish ecotourists from other types of tourists is emphasized by tourism scholars. This study developed distinct motivational and behavioral profiles of visitors to forest-based ecotourism sites in Sri Lanka. Results identified four different types of tourists based on their behavioral and motivational characteristics: ecotourists, picnickers, egoistic tourists, and adventure tourists. Broad implications of visitor profiling are also discussed. This approach can help ecotourism operators to better tailor marketing strategies and increase visitor satisfaction.     

白马社区旅游开发个案研究--兼论自然与文化生态脆弱区的旅游发展

四川平武白马地区旅游开发的实践表明,大众旅游的开发模式会给自然和文化生态相对脆弱的民族地区带来较大的冲击。进行小规模的生态旅游实践,在旅游开发与环境保护和社会文化协调发展之间建立起良性的互动机制,是民族地区旅游可持续发展的适宜路径。     

Can Sanctions and Rewards Explain Conformance Behaviour of Tour Operators with Ecotourism Guidelines?

Ecotourism's appeal as a conservation and development tool rests in its potential to provide local economic benefits while maintaining ecological resource integrity through low-impact, non-consumptive resource use. Some, however, question its contribution to conservation and community development, citing negative impacts, such as solid waste generation, habitat destruction, and sociocultural ills. This paper, based on a comparative study in Costa Rica, explores some of these issues. Study findings were mixed regarding ecotourism's effectiveness as a conservation and community development tool. Survey respondents saw legal restrictions as more influential than tourism in prompting declines in deforestation and hunting rates. Likewise, respondents did not feel tourism operators were significant players in raising environmental awareness. The research also revealed that direct employment in ecotourism was associated with pro-conservation practices, but indirect benefits showed stronger associations in generating pro-conservation perspectives. Little evidence was found to suggest that people are investing tourism-generated income in environmentally threatening practices. Research findings also indicated that scale influences tourism's benefits and negative impacts and that, where ecotourism dominates local economies, towns may become economically vulnerable. The paper concludes by recognising that ecotourism would be most effective as a component of a broader conservation strategy and offers suggestions to improve ecotourism's potential.     

Ecotourism and indigenous micro-enterprise formation in northern Australia opportunities and constraints

Indigenous Australians suffer considerable social and economic disadvantage. The challenge for Indigenous communities and policy makers is to discover or create opportunities that will provide sustainable development. Tourism is seen as one sector that could possibly provide such opportunities. Indigenous tourism enterprises are in most situations likely to be micro businesses. Micro businesses, Indigenous and non-Indigenous, have relatively high failure rates so it is important to undertake substantial planning to avoid failure. This paper presents the results of a planning process undertaken by an Indigenous clan planning to operate their own ecotourism micro-enterprise within Ngukurr, an Indigenous community in northern Australia. The study highlights the fact tourism does provide potential for economic development because Indigenous enterprises often have some competitive advantages. In addition, the study highlights the fact that communities often do not have the capacity to undertake all the tasks necessary to establish and operate a commercially successful ecotourism enterprise. Partnerships with other stakeholders within the region can help overcome this constraint. Finally, it is noted that the CDEP scheme has the potential to satisfy the need for funds that cannot be satisfied through normal channels.     

亚太地区野生生物旅游的可持续发展实践与挑战

野生动物旅游主要基于生物多样性热点地区和标志性物种进行。亚太地区的野生动物旅游已经很受欢迎,预计在新冠肺炎疫情之后还会继续发展。本文为野生动物旅游的可持续发展提供了一系列建议,讨论了在野外观赏野生动物的准则以及植物和真菌观赏的可能性。野生动物旅游的优秀实践标准包括有效的保护区管理、健全的环境政策、控制旅游人数的增长、管理过度拥挤、导游培训、关注动物福利和监测旅游对野生动物的影响等,野生动物旅游的适当推广和营销也需要加以考虑。野生动物旅游的主要挑战包括对大环境的保护不到位,对实现可持续发展要求的误解,以及公园管理者和旅游经营者对游客管理的不足。新冠肺炎疫情的出现为野生动物旅游的影响研究提供了一个契机,反思以前的野生动物旅游业务并在未来维持并改进野生动物旅游。     

回顾与展望:2000-2004年的《旅游学刊》

本文对2000-2004年《旅游学刊》刊登的481篇论文进行了分类统计,并着重介绍了旅游业产业地位和作用、可持续发展和生态旅游、景区保护与管理、饭店和旅行社、旅游规划、旅游经济分析、区域旅游业发展、旅游市场与旅游者行为、研究综述等9个主题的重要文献,以此追踪近年中国旅游研究的动态,并反映《旅游学刊》为促进我国旅游业发展和旅游研究进步而做的努力。     

Applying the resilience principles for sustainable ecotourism development: A case study of the Nakdong Estuary,South Korea

When studying sustainable ecotourism, the ecotourism system can be better understood as a complex association of various elements that affects the local society and wildlife habitats. The purpose of this study is to plan an ecotourism system for the wise ecotourism resource management of estuary wetlands by using a resilience principle-based systems thinking approach. This study suggests an integrated management plan that considers diversity, connectivity, learning, participation, and polycentric governance to solve universal and important issues, such as estuary dam removal, urbanization, and natural resource use in the estuary's social-ecological system. The ecotourism system plans suggested in this study include minimizing ecological conflict and load through an improved sense of responsibility among stakeholders and strengthened protective activities. The results of this study suggest appropriate roles for various stakeholders in the management of tourism resources that can be used to establish new guidelines for ecotourism destination planning.     

论生态旅游的双向责任模式

基于传统大众旅游弊端提出的生态旅游，最大的特点就是具有责任性。围绕生态旅游的责任性的旅游开发和管理实践在世界各地均有积累，但缺乏系统的理论提炼。本文从责任的双向性为切入点，在分析传统大众旅游的单向责任模式和早期生态旅游的单向责任模式的基础上，提出了生态旅游双向责任模式。进而比较三种旅游责任模式的差别，最后从自然生态旅游目的地、社区生态旅游目的地和生态旅游者三个方面来探索生态旅游双向责任模式实现的途径。