Discrimination and Favoritism in the U.S. Labor Market: The Cost to a Wage Earner of Being Female and Black and the Benefit of Being Male and White

Abstract . The hypothesis that Black female wage earners face greater wage discrimination than their White female or Black male counterparts is supported by evidence derived from a version of a widely used method for decomposing wage differentials. This version allows one to measure both the “cost” of being a female or Black wage earner and the “benefit” of being a male or White wage earner. The approach yields a model which is validated by testing with Census Bureau samples (n_1,2,3,4= 23,800). The empirical test indicates that when skills are fairly comparable, the Black female earns an average wage nearly 21 percent lower than the White male average, whereas the White female's average was 15.5 percent lower. It suggests that being female has a relatively greater impact on Black female wages than being Black.     

Single Mothers in Various Living Arrangements:

The economic status of single mothers with dependent children has recently been shown to vary greatly according to their living arrangements, a finding with implications for poverty policy and welfare reform. The economic and time resources of single mothers in various living arrangements were compared using the 1987 National Survey of Families and Households, Cohabitation is significantly related to increased income adequacy and lesser receipt of public assistance for white mothers, but not for black mothers. Living in the parent's home is significantly related to a reduced likelihood of receipt of public assistance for both white and black single mothers, but living with parents is related to lesser time demands in household work for only white single mothers. Differences in resource levels may be related to the finding that, among those living in the parental household, a large majority of white mothers live with two parents, while a majority of black mothers live with one parent.     

Disproportionate Black and Hispanic Unemployment in U.S. Metropolitan Areas: The Roles of Racial Inequality, Segregation and Discrimination in Male Joblessness

Abstract . Three common hypotheses about disproportionate Black and Hispanic unemployment among metropolitan males are tested, using data from the 1980 Population and the 1977 Economic Censuses. It is found that Black and Hispanic male unemployment is higher relative to that of Whites where jobs are most suburbanized and the minority population least so. This supports the view that segregation which separates minorities from job location elevates minority unemployment. It is also found that relative levels of Black, but not Hispanic, unemployment correlate positively to the minority percentage in metropolitan populations. This is consistent with the view that potential White gains from discrimination are greater where the Black (but not Hispanic) population is larger. Finally, both Blacks and Hispanics experience more disproportionate unemployment where their percentage of high school graduates is low relative to Whites, though this is less true for areas with larger Black populations. This suggests that job skill differentials also play some role in disproportionate minority unemployment.     

Owner and Organizational Characteristics of Black-and White-Owned Businesses: Self Employed Blacks Had Less Training, Fewer Resources, Less Profits, but Had Similar Survival Rates

Abstract . Owner and organizational characteristics of 94 Black-owned businesses and 385 White-owned businesses in Chicago, Boston, and Washington, D.C, are examined. Black business owners had fewer years of education and less business experience than their White counterparts. Black businesses were also smaller, more labor intensive, located in poorer neighborhoods, less likely to have insurance, visited by fewer customers per day, more likely to rent their shop space, and to be less profitable than White businesses. However, despite these organizational and individual characteristics, the survival rates of Black and White businesses were not significantly different. Logit analyses suggested that variables such as race, education, size of business, and the average income of those living in the neighborhood, in this sample, did have significant effects on business profitability but did not explain business survival.     

The Nature of the Agrarian Land Question in the Republic of South Africa

Abstract . Most of the land in South Africa is dommnated by 4.5 million Whites. A tiny fraction of this key resource is designated for Black occupation in Black townships in White South Africa and for Black ownership in the ten “homelands.” Several interrelated factors account for the lop sided land distribution that exists in South Africa. The two most important factors are the removal of native occupants from the majority of the land, accomplished by early Dutch settlers, and legislative measures that were designed to guarantee a White controlled economy and foster economic development by assuring an abundant supply of disenfranchised and cheap black labor The extent of the inequality in the land distribution suggests that, from the viewpoint of ownership and control, Blacks were better off prior to 1652 when the first Dutch settlers arrived at the Cape.     

RECEIPT OF INFORMATION AND INFLUENCE OVER DECISIONS IN HOSPITALS BY THE BOARD, CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER AND MEDICAL STAFF

This article examines relationships between receipt of internal administrative information in hospitals, influence over general management decisions, and the extent to which certain organizational characteristics predict the receipt of information by each of the three major groups in hospitals: the board, the CEO, and the medical staff. Using a US national sample of 287 non-profit community hospitals, CEOs were found to receive the greatest amount of information and had highest influence while medical staffs were lowest on both measures. of five major organizational characteristics, hospital size emerged as the single strongest predictor of receipt of information for both boards (beta =?0.28, p 0.001) and medical staffs (beta =?0.42, p 0.001). Overall, the five dependent variables explained 18 per cent of the variance in receipt of information by boards and 28 percent of the variance for medical staffs.     

White Flight or Flight from Poverty?

The phenomenon of White flight is often illustrated by the case of Detroit whose population dropped from 1.80 to 0.95 million between 1950 and 2000 while at the same time its Black and Hispanic component grew from 30 to 85%. But is this case really representative? The present paper shows that the phenomenon of White flight is in fact essentially a flight from poverty. As a confirmation, we show that the changes in White or Black populations are highly correlated which means that White flight is always paralleled by Black flight (and Hispanic flight as well). This broader interpretation of White flight accounts not only for the case of northern cities such as Cincinnati, Cleveland or Detroit, but for all population changes at county level, provided the population density is higher than a threshold of about 50 km² which corresponds to moderately urbanized areas (as can be found in states like Indiana or Virginia for instance).     

Beliefs About the Rich, the Poor and the Taxes They Pay

Abstract . Beliefs about tax burdens are frequently distorted in the direction of the believer's economic self-interest, according to a study of 300 White women in the Boston Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area, of 50 of their husbands in a matched pairs analysis and of 25 Black women. Socioeconomic status is a consistently stronger predictor of the federal tax burden than is ideology, but neither is effective. The federal income tax component of the total tax burden is consistently overestimated. But there is a general tendency to underestimate the total tax burden of the poor.     

The Effectiveness of Public Assistance Payments (1970–80) in Reducing Poverty Reconsidered

A bstract . The effectiveness of public assistance in reducing poverty in the U.S.A. is re-examined by estimating the extent of public assistance among all families and of families officially defined in poverty. Also studied is the extent of public assistance among families not defined as in poverty. The findings are further analyzed for their changes during the decade 1970–80. It is found that errors of commission (assisting families not in poverty) and of omission (not assisting families in poverty) were quite widespread in 1980, although significantly reduced from their high prevalence in 1970.     

The Spatial Pattern of Residential Mobility in Guangzhou,China

In urban China, residential mobility behaviors have changed fundamentally in recent decades. While research has been undertaken on the trends and causes of residential relocation for different population groups, less attention has been paid to micro‐level processes of residential change, yet the latter underscore urban dynamics. This study addresses this through a survey conducted in Guangzhou in late 2012, which analyzes the spatial flows of residential shifts within and between three distance zones—inner core, inner suburbs and outer suburbs—to reveal complex mobility trends. In particular, hukou or household registration status, socio‐economic status, the nature and rank of employment, and tenure were found to have varied effects on the probability of inward and outward shifts. More specifically, while outward shifts in recent years mainly involved local hukou holders, families with higher education levels, a higher socio‐economic status or those working for government departments and public institutions were found to be more likely to settle in high‐rise commodity housing in the inner core. The majority of non‐hukou migrants, by contrast, moved within the same street or between adjacent streets within the same suburban area, while age, socio‐economic status and homeownership were found to increase an individual's chance of an inward shift.     

The Role of Foundations in Public Debates in Germany

Why is the German foundations model different from the U.S. model? Does it have to do with the long and surprisingly unbroken history of foundations in Germany or rather with differences in the role of the state? Whatever the answer, this has enormous repercussions on what foundations may achieve in helping to shape public debates. Using Hirschman's model of loyalty, voice, and exit, and a definition of foundations based on seven different functions, the article explores the history of foundations in Germany and assesses their public role, both as contributors of arguments and policy papers, and as objects of public debate. It describes the amazing revival the concept of philanthropy has encountered over the last 15 years, and discusses whether this is due to long‐term political convictions or rather to short‐term political needs. Using examples taken from the 19^th and 20^th centuries, the article highlights a number of aspects that serve to illustrate the theoretical dilemma as to whether and to what extent highly hierarchical organisms may legitimately exist in an open heterarchical society.     

Interregional tax competition and intraregional political competition: The optimal provision of public goods under representative democracy

This paper explores the implications of the interaction between interregional tax competition and intraregional political competition for the optimal provision of public goods under representative democracy à la (Osborne and Slivinski, 1996) and (Besley and Coate, 1997). As an extension of Hoyt’s (1991) finding that intensified tax competition is always harmful and aggravates the extent to which public goods are undersupplied in a region, we show that intensified tax competition can be beneficial if political as well as tax competition is considered. In particular, we identify plausible conditions under which (i) there is an optimal intensity of tax competition such that the interaction between interregional tax competition and intraregional political competition will result in the optimal provision of public goods and (ii) intensified tax competition will be beneficial if and only if the degree of tax competition is less than this optimal intensity.     

Emotional intelligence and career-related outcomes: A meta-analysis

The concept of emotional intelligence has spanned researchers' interest to a considerable extent over the last decades and is now considered as a critical resource that helps individuals to deal with career challenges. However, no empirical effort to integrate these studies has been carried out yet. The current research addresses this gap by proposing an integrated theoretical model and conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of emotional intelligence and its associations with career-related outcomes. Out of a total of 150 independent samples from published and unpublished studies representing N = 50,894 participants, our random-effects meta-analysis showed that emotional intelligence was significantly related to career adaptability, career decision-making self-efficacy, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, salary, career commitment, career decision-making difficulties, career satisfaction, entrepreneurial intentions, and turnover intentions. However, no significant correlations were found with job search self-efficacy and self-perceived employability. Overall, our work conveys important theoretical contributions but also provides recommendations and an agenda for future research.     

Unemployment as a Factor in Early Retirement Decisions

Abstract . Is retiring early a way for older workers to cope with the stigma and discouragement of unemployment? A regression analysis using the National Longitudinal Survey sample of American men age 52–64 in 1973 shows that weeks of previous unemployment is significantly related to early retirement for both Black and White males. This relationship holds when controlling for social security and pension eligibility, assets, health limitations, family responsibilities, occupation, changes in the unemployment rate and urban residence. The results suggest that social policy concerning retirement prior to age 65 should take into account the important role of unemployment in pushing workers out of the labor force into early retirement.     

Ethnic Competition for Residential Space in Miami, Florida, 1970–80

A bstract . Between 1970 and 1980 the Hispanic population of Miami had a phenomenal rate of growth while the Black population also grew rapidly. The non-Hispanic White population actually experienced a numerical decline. The Hispanic population of the city has been highly successful in improving its economic well-being and has been able to penetrate deeply into non-Hispanic White neighborhoods throughout the city. Blacks have not been able to increase their economic well-being as greatly and their expansion has been confined largely to neighborhoods adjacent to older Black neighborhoods. Non-Hispanic White neighborhoods shrank considerably in area during the decade and today are mainly found on Miami Beach , in northeast Miami and the far south of the city. If large scale Hispanic migration continues, and the Black population maintains its rate of growth, by 1990 Miami will likely have an even smaller non-Hispanic White population than today and be ethnically more segregated.     

Self-employment policies and migrants' entrepreneurship in Germany

This paper presents results from a European project on policy and migrants' entrepreneurship in Germany. It develops a concept of biographical policy evaluation by analysing the extent to which the biographical processes that have led to self-employment among migrants in individual cases correspond to those anticipated by policy. The study identifies a biographical structure composed of two phases that shape the status passage to self-employment. During these phases, personal resources are mobilized and/or attempts are made to access policy support. Self-employment policies are fragmented in that they are designed to address specific stages of the process. Migrants are often excluded from policy participation, either as a result of policy failures or through a manner of implementation that is frequently influenced by prejudices and stereotypes. Deprived of class resources and sometimes unable to utilize ethnic resources, migrant would-be entrepreneurs require public support. The ‘bridging allowance’ scheme to encourage self-employment among the unemployed currently in place in Germany (Überbrückungsgeld) could serve as a model for a more adequate support policy for non-privileged business starters that would better allow for the participation of migrants.     

The benefits,satisfaction, and perceived value of small business membership in a chamber of commerce

• Nonprofit chambers of commerce have a long history in western culture but little if any empirical research has been conducted to explore why a small business would join one. This study focuses on members' evaluation of chamber assistance programs and benefits and how they mediate the impact of satisfaction and the perceived customer value of paid membership for chamber services. A mail census survey of all 2019 members, in a large category‐four chamber of commerce, provided valid and reliable representation of existing membership demographics. Factor analysis identified four main benefits, whereas a LISREL model was applied to identify the mediating impact of relational benefits on satisfaction and perceived value. All four dominant benefits significantly correlated with both membership satisfaction and perceived value as did the correlation between satisfaction and perceived value. However, perceived value was found to have higher correlations with relational benefits than that of satisfaction. This study is important as it provides managers with a framework to identify and balance the benefits desired by the membership and adjust the level of expected satisfaction with perceived value in a nonprofit service‐oriented assistance organization.

Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Economic Analysis of Teenage Fertility

Abstract . The relationship between the probability of a teenage birth and various independent variables representing fecundity, attitudes, resources, and the economic opportunities for a sample of teenage females drawn from the 1980 census is examined. A theoretical framework, based on Becker's model, is employed to describe the birth-decision process and tested using a logit technique. The findings suggest that receipt of public assistance income and perceived economic opportunities are more important in explaining fertility probabilities among older (18–19 years old) teenagers. Among younger teens, accessibility to family planning and abortion services, and religious attitudes toward family planning ate more important predictors of fertility.     

Mixed oligopoly, foreign firms, and location choice

We investigate a mixed market in which a state-owned, welfare-maximizing public firm competes against n domestic private firms and m foreign private firms which are all profit-maximizing. A circular city model with quantity-setting competition is employed. We find that the equilibrium location pattern depends on m. All private firms agglomerate in the unique equilibrium if m is zero or one. Two foreign firms induce differentiation between domestic and foreign private firms. More than two foreign firms yield differentiation among the foreign firms. Regardless of n and m, agglomeration of all domestic private firms appears in equilibrium. We provide several conditions in which eliminating the public firm from the market enhances social welfare. We extend the basic model and investigate three issues concerning multiple public firms, inefficiency of the public firm, and entries by private firms. We obtain some additional implications of welfare and equilibrium locations.     

The Rocky Road to Privatization

Abstract . Three main types of privatization are found in the United States: (1) lower proportion of Gross National Product preempted by the public sector, leaving correspondingly more for the private sector, (2) transferring present government enterprises to private organizations; and (3) contracting out the production and delivery of services financed by public funds. Most discussions of “contracting out,” which come from the “public choice” school of economics and public administration, mainly emphasize theoretical economic advantages. They also suppose that the practice can eradicate political machinations. In contrast, this evaluation takes into account the practices’intensely political environment. Many of the advantages attributed to contracting out often are not realized. The practice in many cases can save money. But successes are likely to be achieved only with projects meeting certain narrow specifications.