Work‐related attitudes and job characteristics of expatriates in Saudi Arabia

This study investigates the influence of job satisfaction, job autonomy, job variety, task identity, feedback, and employee demographics on organizational commitment among self‐initiated expatriates (SIEs) in Saudi Arabia. An examination of a sample of 481 SIEs reveals that only job satisfaction and job variety are related to organizational commitment. The rest—job characteristics and demographics—are unrelated to organizational commitment. The findings and the anomalies of the findings are discussed. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Compensation disparity between locals and expatriates: Moderating the effects of perceived injustice in foreign multinationals in China

A large compensation gap exists between local and expatriate employees in foreign multinationals in China. A survey in the Suzhou area confirmed that local employees regarded their compensation vis-à-vis that of expatriates as unfair. Trustworthiness of expatriates by locals showed a stronger effect on their evaluation of expatriates than on their job satisfaction and organizational commitment, whereas perceived compensation received by locals showed the opposite pattern. Trustworthiness of expatriates moderated the negative effect of perceived distributive injustice on evaluation of expatriates, whereas perceived compensation moderated the relationships between perceived distributive injustice and job satisfaction as well as organizational commitment.     

Why do self-initiated expatriates quit their jobs: The role of job embeddedness and shocks in explaining turnover intentions

Retaining self-initiated expatriates is a challenge for many organizations. Self-made expatriates tend to be mobile. They are willing to manage their own careers and to take up opportunities to live and work in countries of their own choice. Despite their importance as a source of human capital there are few studies on the work experiences of self-initiated expatriates and on the factors that affect their decisions to stay or leave their jobs. This article examined the effects of both job embeddedness and shocks on the turnover intention of self-initiated expatriates. Drawing on a sample of 204 self-initiated expatriates working in public healthcare organizations in the United Arab Emirates we found that both on-the-job embeddedness and shocks played a key role in predicting turnover intentions. The study also revealed that off-the-job embeddedness moderated the relationship between shock and turnover intentions such that self-initiated expatriates were more likely to consider leaving their organizations when they were firmly embedded in their community. We discuss the practical and theoretical implications of these findings.     

Knowledge transfer between self-initiated expatriates and their organizations: Research propositions for managing SIEs

Knowledge management is increasingly recognized as a key aspect of international business and management. This paper offers research avenues for investigating knowledge transfer between self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) and their employer organizations. Building on the existing literature on expatriation and knowledge transfer, it offers a series of research propositions. It illustrates the knowledge transfer process in three phases: opportunity seeking, knowledge sharing, and knowledge application. We suggest that different characteristics of SIEs and their organizations can influence the knowledge transfer process. Furthermore, we advance that SIEs may be a source of sustained competitive advantage to their companies. Several implications for future empirical research are also discussed and the paper concludes with practical implications for SIE talent management.     

Going abroad to play: Motivations,challenges, and support of sports expatriates

Professional athletes moving abroad for their career is a novel phenomenon in international human resource management (IHRM). This exploratory article charts the motivations of sports expatriates to move abroad to play, as well as adjustment challenges and sources of support. A survey was conducted with 77 professional athletes in 10 different sports. The main motivations to move abroad were interest to experience life abroad, followed by the search for new challenges. In terms of challenges, different coaching style and communication issues were most often mentioned. Support was mainly informal, through team mates rather than professional providers. Our article contributes to the literature because it is one of the first studies focusing on sports expatriates from an international HR perspective. Our study provides information on a vulnerable group of expatriates; they are young in age and under extreme performance pressure. Sports expatriates need all the support they can get, and yet, little professional support is offered.     

Global mobility orientation and the success of self-initiated expatriates in Greater China

We investigated 640 self-initiated expatriate academics residing in Greater China. We examined whether their inherent demographic characteristics (age/gender) and acquired demographic characteristics (marital status/seniority) differentiated their work outcomes regarding job adjustment, time to proficiency, performance and satisfaction. We also explored the associations between global mobility orientation and these four work outcomes and examined to what extent the demographic characteristics differentiated the relationships. Results support most hypothesized differences. We found that a global mobility orientation was associated with all the work outcomes, except satisfaction. For inherent demographic characteristics, we found support for our hypotheses that for individuals with less successful demographics (younger, male), there was a stronger relationship between global mobility orientation and the work outcomes.     

A multi-dimensional analysis of the subjective well-being of self-initiated expatriates: The case of Nigerian expatriates in Germany

This paper examines the role of four types of influences on the Subjective Well-Being of Nigerian self-initiated expatriates in Germany: (1) Individual, (2) Group, (3) Social, and (4) Organizational. Based on survey data from 377 respondents, we find that variables in all four categories influence subjective well-being. Our findings generally agree with the results predicted by the theory, albeit a few counter-intuitive findings. Above all, our results indicate the potency of social- and group-level influences. The individual- and organizational-level influences, too, are significant, although to a slightly lesser extent. Overall, our results suggest that “soft” factors play an important role in augmenting perceptions about one's own well-being in the context of international assignments.     

Career anchors: A comparison between organization‐assigned and self‐initiated expatriates

In the present study, based on the theory of fit, we have tested hypotheses on a sample of 303 French expatriates, comparing career anchors between assigned and self‐initiated expatriates. We found that lifestyle and internationalism are both very important anchors for assigned as well as self‐initiated expatriates, although most anchors differ among these groups. Furthermore, we have introduced a measure of the internationalism career anchor that presents promising psychometric characteristics. Our results provide important theoretical and practical implications. In particular, they show that both assigned expatriates and self‐initiated expatriates can be engaged in a boundaryless career. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Entrepreneurial intentions: The influence of organizational and individual factors

An individual's intent to pursue an entrepreneurial career can result from the work environment and from personal factors. Drawing on the entrepreneurial intentions and the person-environment (P-E) fit literatures, and applying a multilevel perspective, we examine why individuals intend to leave their jobs to start business ventures. Findings, using a sample of 4192 IT professionals in Singapore, suggest that work environments with an unfavorable innovation climate and/or lack of technical excellence incentives influence entrepreneurial intentions, through low job satisfaction. Moderating effects suggest that an individual's innovation orientation strengthens the work-environment to job-satisfaction relationship; self-efficacy strengthens the job-satisfaction to entrepreneurial intentions relationship.     

Language ability and adjustment: Western expatriates in China

Although the standard of English proficiency is rising in China, using English in conversations with Chinese host nationals may be difficult. Therefore, proficiency in the Chinese language may promote the adjustment of foreign business expatriates in China. To test this proposition, a mail survey was directed to Western business expatriates assigned to China. Controlling for the time expatriates had spent in China, results showed that their language ability had a positive association with their sociocultural adjustment. Not surprisingly, this positive relationship was strongest for interaction adjustment and weakest for work adjustment. The straightforward implications of these clear findings are discussed in detail. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Organizational cynicism in multinational corporations in China

Organizational cynicism is a pejorative attitude toward the employing organization induced by mistrust, disillusion, and various negative experiences. Based on cognitive dissonance theory we develop and test a theoretical model of how perceived cultural differences lead to organizational cynicism which in turn results in greater turnover intentions among host country nationals (HCN) employed in foreign subsidiaries of multinational corporations. Furthermore, we argue that the negative effect of perceived cultural differences can be mitigated by localization, i.e. replacement of expatriates by local staff. Survey results from HCN employees in foreign subsidiaries in China confirm the expected relationships.     

Expatriate personality and cultural fit: The moderating role of host country context on job satisfaction

This study draws on the cultural fit hypothesis to examine interactive effects of host country context and four (Multicultural Personality Questionnaire) expatriate personality traits – Cultural Empathy, Social Initiative, Emotional Stability, and Open Mindedness – on job satisfaction. The cultural fit hypothesis maintains that it is not only the expatriate personality traits per se, but the cultural fit between expatriate personality traits and host country cultural values, norms, and prototypical personality traits that predict expatriate adjustment in host countries (Searle & Ward, 1990). Providing partial support for the cultural fit hypothesis, data derived from 191 expatriates in Brazil and Japan shows that the importance of two personality traits varies in these countries. Specifically, expatriates with high Cultural Empathy were more satisfied with their jobs in Japan than in Brazil, whereas Social Initiative was more important for expatriates in Brazil.     

Chinese host country nationals' willingness to help expatriates: The role of social categorization

In this study, we examine Chinese host country nationals' (HCNs') willingness to offer role information and social support to expatriates from the United States. Using data from 132 Chinese managers, we find that ethnocentrism, interpersonal affect, and guanxi significantly impact HCNs' willingness to offer help to expatriates. Furthermore, we find that the job level of the expatriate has a significant impact on HCNs' willingness to offer role information but not on willingness to offer social support. The results suggest that paying attention to the perceptions and reactions of HCNs toward expatriates is imperative for multinational companies if expatriates are to succeed on their assignments. ©2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Career management of business expatriates from China

Chinese mainland business managers assigned to Hong Kong responded to a mail survey exploring issues on career management. The group of mainland managers was compared with a sample of Western expatriates, mostly from the US, France, and Britain. It was found that the Chinese expatriates had a significantly lower score than their Western counterparts on all the studied individual level career management variables: expatriate career preferences, meeting career goals within the corporation, career development fit, and right career move. Of the corporate level policy variables, corporate expatriate pool and separate expatriate careers also had lower scores for the Chinese than the Western managers. These findings support the behavioral process model of internationalization claiming that internationalization is a matter of learning. Implications of these results for internationalizing Chinese corporations are discussed.     

A cross-cultural examination of the curvilinear relationship between perceived demands-abilities fit and risk-taking propensity

We propose a U-shaped relationship between perceived demands-abilities (D-A) fit and risk-taking propensity that is contingent on individual-level uncertainty avoidance and test this relationship in the U.S., China, and Japan. We find a consistent cross-cultural support for the main curvilinear relationships, whereas the moderating role of individual-level uncertainty avoidance is supported in the U.S. and Japan, but not China. Our results challenge the conventional wisdom that relationships between fit and job outcomes are linear and open up new research avenues for person-environment research which should examine both ‘bright’ and ‘dark’ sides of fit.     

The impact of expatriate personality traits on cross-cultural adjustment: A study with expatriates in Japan

While regarded as among the most important factors affecting expatriate cross-cultural adjustment, little focused research with a broad array of personality traits has been conducted. This study draws from the cultural fit hypothesis and the socio-analytic theory to examine the impact of expatriate personality traits through the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire on the general-, interaction-, and work-related facets of cross-cultural adjustment among 181 expatriates in Japan. The results show positive relationships between the personality traits of Open Mindedness and interaction adjustment, Emotional Stability and Cultural Empathy and general adjustment, and Social Initiative and work adjustment.     

Knowledge translation through expatriates in international knowledge transfer

Studies of international knowledge transfer usually focus on the transfer of knowledge without loss between organizational units. However, this research has frequently been inconclusive because of the tacit nature of knowledge and the difficulties of measuring the results of knowledge transfer. Therefore, we suggest a paradigmatic shift of research from knowledge transfer without loss, to knowledge translation as a matter of modification of knowledge when transferred from one context to an other. According to this perspective, the knowledge transfer between the MNE HQ and foreign subsidiaries is a socio-cultural process in which expatriates can be expected to play an important role.In this paper, we study the impact of expatriates in knowledge translation from MNE HQ to foreign subsidiaries. Through an empirical analysis, we examine how the characteristics of expatriates influence the usefulness of knowledge transferred internationally. An important result of the study is that the expatriation experience and, in particular, the relationship development capability has significant positive effects on the international knowledge translation process. However, we did not find any statistical evidence that an expatriate's experience of the particular industry or the particular country has a significant effect.     

Intercultural communication patterns and tactics: Nordic expatriates in Japan

This study provides a Nordic expatriate perspective on intercultural communication patterns and tactics in Japan. Interviews with 30 Nordic expatriates reveal that divergent communication styles, the cultural values of verticality and collectivism, and the lack of shared language have a negative impact on intercultural communication. The interviews reveal that rather than remaining passive bystanders, expatriates adopt various tactics to increase intercultural communication. These include engaging in informal interactions with Japanese employees and managers, sharing and monitoring space, and language training. Implications and suggestions are offered for future research.     

Dimensions of expatriates adjustment in distant subsidiaries: A field study of a sub‐Saharan African institutional distance

The aim of this study is to investigate the determinants of expatriates’ adjustments in distant and complex multinational subsidiaries. Using the institutional theory as a basis for expatriates’ assignments in complex subsidiaries, the work employed a sequential mixed methodology of data collection. An in‐depth face‐to‐face interview with 21 senior expatriate executives and a quantitative survey of 204 expatriates working in various multinational subsidiaries in Ghana served as data for the work. Consequently, a structural equation modeling (SEM) and a content analysis were the basis of the data analysis. Findings showed host country culture plays a significant role in determining expatriate adjustment in distant subsidiaries. Findings also showed expatriates’ competence in cross‐cultural communication significantly determines expatriates’ adjustment in distant subsidiaries. The work recommends an intensive training of expatriates in cross‐cultural communication and host cultural values and behaviors for international assignees.     

Cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates: The role of emotional intelligence and gender

The study examines the role of emotional intelligence (EI) in cross-cultural adjustment (CCA) of expatriates on international assignments. Based on a sample of 269 French expatriates operating in 133 countries, our analysis finds a significant and positive relationship between EI and expatriates’ general living, interactional and work-related CCA. Additionally, it shows that cultural similarity only facilitates general living adjustment and not interactional or work adjustments. Finally, our analysis reveals an interesting interaction effect between gender and the ability to appraise and express emotions: the influence of the latter on all three dimensions of CCA tends to be slightly stronger for male than female expatriates. The study offers important practical implications for organizations concerning the identification and development of successful expatriates.