Money Creation in the Eurozone: An Empirical Assessment of the Endogenous and the Exogenous Money Theories

ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to strengthen our understanding of the money creation process in the Eurozone for 1999–2016 period, through an empirical assessment of two main monetary theories, namely the (Post Keynesian) endogenous money theory and the (Monetarist) exogenous money theory. By applying a VAR and VECM methodology, we analyse the causal relationship among monetary reserves (or monetary base), bank deposits and bank loans. Our empirical analysis supports several propositions of the Post Keynesian endogenous money theory since (i) bank loans determine bank deposits, and (ii) bank deposits in turn determine monetary reserves.     

Stable International Environmental Agreements: An Analytical Approach

In this paper we examine the formation of international environmental agreements (IEAs). We show that the welfare of the signatories does not increase monotonically with respect to the number of signatories. We provide an analytical solution of the leadership model. In particular, we find that if the number of countries is greater than four then there exists a unique stable IEA with either two, three, or four signatories. Furthermore, we show that the welfare of the signatories is almost at its lowest level when the IEA is stable. While in our model each country's choice variable is emissions, we extend our results to the case where the choice variable is abatement efforts.     

Endogenous Money: A Note on Some Post-Keynesian Controversies

Keynes's theory of liquidity preference sought to illuminate the essential properties of money under the conditions of uncertainty that often lead to involuntary unemployment. Subsequent Post-Keynesian literature built upon this concept to show that a deregulated financial system could induce phases of endemic financial instability and crises. Keynes's finance motive provides an important starting point in Post-Keynesian theories of endogenous money. This article examines the controversies between two major contending analytical approaches, the Horizontalist and Structuralist schools.     

Endogenous Money Supply and the Business Cycle

This paper documents changes in the cyclical behavior of nominal data series that appear after 1979:Q3 when the Federal Reserve implemented a policy to lower the inflation rate. Such changes were not apparent in real variables. A business cycle model with impulses to technology and a role for money is used to show how alternative money supply rules are expected to affect observed business cycle facts. In this model, changes in the money supply rules have almost no effect on the cyclical behavior of real variables, yet have a significant impact on the cyclical nature of nominal variables.Journal of Economic LiteratureClassification Numbers: E32, E42, E50.     

An Extended Analytical Approach to Credit Risk Management

Among the 'reduced form models' for measuring the credit risk of a bank's portfolio is CreditRisk+, which provides a closed–form solution for calculating the portfolio loss distribution based on an actuarial approach. The limitations of this model are well known, but they are often misinterpreted as being deeply embedded within the model. Dismantling the mathematical components of the model allows one to modify and extend it in several ways while remaining within an analytical approach. One of the most unattractive features is the orthogonality of the background factors or sectors as it hinders any resemblance to real–world macroeconomic indexes or industrial sectors and geographical areas. Among other extensions, which we mention briefly, we present in more detail how the original model can be amended to consider correlations among default risk sectors and among severity risk segments. These extensions are applied to real–life data, based on mortality rate data produced by the Italian Central Bank.
(J.E.L.: C00, C51).     

Post Keynesian Approaches to Endogenous Money: A time framework explanation

Over the last two decades, work on the Post Keynesian theory of endogenous money has been flourishing, and has prompted a rethinking of the complex nature of money in modern economies. At the heart of the debate between what have now been labelled the accommodationist (or horizontalist) approach and the structuralist approach to endogenous money are the issues of the slope of the supply curves of reserves and of credit money, respectively. Using the distinction between a single period analysis and a continuation analysis, similarities and differences between those approaches are explained, and the suggestion is then made for retaining and re-interpreting them into a more general theory.     

Money,Trust, and Culture: Elements for an Institutional Approach to Money

The development gap between countries in tropical and temperate zones has been attributed to a variety of factors. Using data from the World Values Survey, we find that social norms about thrift, as opposed to sharing, vary with the length of the winter season. We also show that this cultural dimension “thrift versus sharing” and institutional quality both have an independent effect on contemporary economic outcomes. This suggests that the tropical development gap might be the consequence of deep-rooted effects of pre-industrial agro-climatic conditions on both the quality of institutions and social norms about thrift versus sharing that fostered development in the industrial era.     

定金的多角度经济学解释

定金作为保证交易双方信守承诺的信用工具,其法律意义不言自明.笔者应用博弈论、最优停止理论、期权理论对定金进行了分析和解释,揭示了定金背后的微观经济含义.从博弈论的角度分析,定金的存在使双方都有积极性履行合同;根据最优停止理论,定金的存在降低了某一特定值,使双方更容易达成交易;应用期权理论分析,定金使买卖双方分别获得了买入、卖出的期权.     

从内生货币到内生金融:后凯恩斯主义货币金融理论的发展与启示

后凯恩斯主义从反向因果关系和金融创新两个维度诠释了货币内生的机理和过程,但却由于把关注焦点集中于传统商业银行而受到Palley的批评,后者提出用内生金融概念取代内生货币以涵盖非银行金融机构的流动性创造.尽管非银行金融机构创造的负债可以代替货币执行交易媒介的职能,然而其流动性终究是虚拟的,离不开商业银行"真正"流动性的参与和支持.现实生活中,商业银行和非银行金融机构之间的界限日益模糊,整个金融体系在带来远大于内生货币理论描述的金融弹性的同时,也导致更大的金融不稳定性.后凯恩斯主义从内生货币到内生金融理论的发展,丰富了我们对货币金融本质和规律的认识,为走出中国特色金融发展之路提供了参考和借鉴.     

货币供给内生外生辨析

货币供给究竟是内生的还是外生的,这是货币金融领域始终争论不休的问题。货币数量论从货币数量与物价变动的关系得出货币具有外生性;凯恩斯的货币供给观由于经济环境的改变经历了由内生向外生的转变;后凯恩斯主义者则从信贷货币的产生过程得出货币内生的观点.综观货币发展史,内生与外生之争还有标准的混乱和概念不同等原因。     

Cambridge's Contribution to Endogenous Money: Robinson and Kahn on credit and money

It is often claimed by American Post Keynesians that the theories of endogenous money originated in the mid-1950s as a result of articles published by Nicholas Kaldor and Hyman Minsky. This paper offers another possibility. It argues that, in the mid-1950s, both Joan Robinson and Richard Kahn offered insights into the workings of a credit economy that have been largely ignored by Post Keynesians and that are consistent with Post Keynesian monetary theory.     

经济波动、超额准备金率和内生货币-基于信贷市场资金搜寻和匹配视角

本文基于信贷市场资金和项目的搜寻与匹配视角建立了一个内生货币模型,分析经济波动和货币政策对超额准备金率和货币乘数的影响。比较静态分析发现,超额准备金率具有逆周期特征;其变化有减弱法定准备金率和基础货币政策效果的作用。动态分析发现,超额准备金率具有滞后周期特征;超额准备金率的内生变化会带来货币政策的时滞效应。通过中国数据校准参数后的模拟发现,较高惰性的法定准备金率调整政策不仅不能有效抚平信贷市场波动,反而可能是造成信贷市场不稳定的原因。对中国数据的实证分析表明,超额准备金率的上述特征都具有很好的统计显著性。     

Endogenous Money,Fiscal Policy,Interest Rates and the Exchange Rate Regime: Correction

This note suggests two corrections that might usefully be made to the analysis in an earlier article with the same title. The corrections have no direct bearing on the original argument (which had to do with disputes about modern money theory, or MMT) but do seem important for the future development of an alternative monetary theory.     

Monetary Disequilibrium, Endogenous Money, Stability and the Determinacy of Inflation

This paper examines the stability of the disequilibrium money model, with endogenous money and transitory interest rate control by the Central Bank. In the tradition of the post-Keynesian literature, the money supply is determined by bank lending and disequilibrium between money demand and supply determines the business cycle. The rate of interest is assumed to react to an inflation target and inflation responds to the business cycle. The paper examines the stability of the model under three inflation response systems: the accelerationist model, adaptive expectations and rational expectations.
(J.E.L.: E3, E4, E5).     

论拜金主义

本文从客观上、主观上、国际上分析我国现阶段存在拜金主义的原因,并论述拜金主义的实质是拜倒在货币面前,金钱腐蚀了人们的灵魂.拜金主义在政治上、经济上、社会上、思想上有各种表现形式.拜金主义的危害是:瓦解社会主义的经济基础,腐蚀人们的灵魂,影响社会安定团结.因此,必须预防和抵制拜金主义.