Heritage tourism and livelihood sustainability of a resettled rural community: Mount Sanqingshan World Heritage Site,China

Tourism and related development can lead to the displacement and resettlement of communities, disrupting local livelihood systems, socio-political processes and organizations. However, limited attention has been paid to community resettlement in the tourism context. Taking Yinhuwan village at Mount Sanqingshan World Heritage Site in China as an example, this study examines the results of tourism and resettlement on the livelihoods of this rural community and the extent to which tourism-related livelihood strategies contribute to community livelihood sustainability. A sustainable livelihood framework is adopted to guide the analysis. Face-to-face in-depth interviews were conducted with management officials, community leaders and village residents through three field investigations in 2013. It was found that traditional livelihood methods have been largely replaced by tourism, which has become the primary livelihood strategy for the resettled community. Despite current economic benefits, high dependency on tourism-related opportunities as the single livelihood option may diminish the sustainability of local livelihoods. The current resettlement plan highlights short-term economic impacts on the affected community, overlooking their socio-cultural concerns and long-term livelihood sustainability. Possible measures are discussed to diversify livelihood options and mitigate potential challenges for the affected community so as to ensure their long-term benefits and increase future options.     

An Integrative Approach to Tourism: Lessons from the Andes of Peru

This study compares the Andean communities of Taquile Island and Chiquian, Peru, which differ in their level of integration for their respective tourism sector. Integration was primarily defined by percentage of local people employed, type and degree of participation, decision-making power, and ownership in the local tourism sector. Principally social and economic aspects were measured and evaluated, recognising that considerable local support and participation in tourism decision making are linked to issues of ownership and control. It was found that higher levels of integration would lead to enhanced socioeconomic benefits for the community. A framework for community integration was developed that could help guide research, planning, development and evaluation of community-based tourism projects.     

Resident perceptions of social–ecological resilience and the sustainability of community-based tourism development in the Commonwealth of Dominica

Despite major investments in community-based tourism to diversify economies, reduce poverty and improve life quality in the Caribbean, little is known about what conditions lead to resilience and sustainability. Sustainability from a resilience theory perspective is the likelihood an existing system of resource use will persist indefinitely without a decline in social and natural resource bases. Undertaking activities to enhance resilience and sustainability improves a system's ability to persevere, adapt and learn to meet challenges from unanticipated economic, political or natural events. This study investigated six communities in the Commonwealth of Dominica, all part of a seven-year community tourism program, and examined residents' perceptions of the social, institutional, economic and ecological resilience of their community, and therefore the resilience and sustainability of community tourism development. It used a new scale using eight steps suggested by Devellis' scale development methodology. Data indicated moderate to low resilience in all four domains across the communities. This suggests that communities should invest in strengthening social bonds, developing capacity in local institutions, in diversifying the tourism product and controlling infrastructure development. Indicators measuring trust, networks, local control, flexible governance, leakage prevention and controlled infrastructure development emerged as important in assessing social–ecological resilience and sustainability.     

A capital assets framework for appraising and building capacity for tourism development in aboriginal protected area gateway communities

Tourism may constitute an important livelihood option and conservation incentive for communities located near protected areas (PAs). Gateway communities can benefit significantly from the development of tourism through increased employment, financial gains, infrastructure creation, cultural revitalization, and environmental protection. Yet, tourism is not a panacea for PA communities and the development of a local tourism industry often fails to deliver significant economic, social, cultural, and environmental benefits. Clearly defined frameworks for maximizing the benefits from tourism development for PA communities are needed so that tourism can more directly support community development and conservation efforts. This paper presents a framework for appraising and building community capacity for tourism development in aboriginal protected area gateway communities. The framework was developed through the analysis of qualitative results from five different research projects around seven capital assets (i.e., natural, physical and built, financial, political and institutional, social, cultural, and human capitals). Preliminary results from application and testing of the framework are also explored. The framework presented herein has significant potential for broader application in non-aboriginal, international, and non-protected area communities.     

Destination social capital and innovation in SMEs tourism firms: an empirical analysis in an adverse socio-economic context

Abstract

This study examines the structural relationships between internal and external resources that explain the innovation of small tourism firms in adverse socio-economic contexts. Specifically, it analyzes two internal resources, human and organizational-technological capital, and the valuable intangible resources derived from social interactions between the agents in the destination (other companies, institutions, and community). The research hypotheses are tested by means of structural equation analysis applied to an empirical study of 180 tourism firms located in Isla Margarita (Venezuela). The findings confirm the importance of external resources derived from relationships with destination agents in the innovation behavior of tourism small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). While business social capital affects innovative behavior directly, other types of internal intellectual capital mediate the relationship between innovative behavior and institutional and community social capital. It is the first to address the local community’s role in the innovation of tourism SMEs. The importance of integrating firm and destination resources should inform SMEs’ innovation policies in adverse contexts where the scarcity of resources make vulnerable the economic, social and environmental sustainability.     

基于层次分析法的乡村旅游地社区参与状况评价——以北京市平谷区黄松峪乡雕窝村为例

良好的乡村旅游社区参与能够发挥多重功能:延长乡村旅游地作为旅游目的地的生命周期,为其塑造良好的旅游地形象.同时,促使当地居民的经济、生活状况得到提升和改善.因此,良好的社区参与是乡村旅游可持续发展的重要保障.文章以北京市平谷区黄松峪乡雕窝村为例,运用AHP层次分析法将社区参与复杂的内涵进行逐层分析,发挥其定量分析与定性分析相结合的优点,对乡村旅游的社区参与情况进行比较客观的评价,从社区参与的角度为乡村旅游可持续发展提供参考.     

Assessment of the changing levels of livelihood assets in the Kampong Phluk community with implications for community-based ecotourism

In recent years, international attention has been rendered to development of ecotourism for poverty reduction and biodiversity conservation. We assessed local livelihood assets in Kampong Phluk Community before and after the introduction of the community-based ecotourism (CBET) governance system, where it was previously under the private company management system (SEAPAC). We used a sustainable livelihood framework to assess natural, physical, human, social, and financial assets by analyzing a set of panel data of 150 observations according to the scoring scale of zero (total dissatisfaction) to one (total satisfaction). We found that full implementation of CBET raised the overall average score of livelihood assets by 0.15. In particular, physical capital and human capital achieved remarkable growth by 0.25 to 0.23, respectively, while growth in natural capital and financial capital was statistically insignificant. Although CBET showed promising results, improving communication and providing community health care would motivate active participation in ecotourism development.     

The planning,development and management of tourism: The case of Dangjia,an ancient village in China

“Ancient villages” are rural settlements in China that achieve this classification because of their historic, cultural and architectural values. Nonetheless, while they have long histories and are considered as tourism assets they may also face social, economic, environmental and political problems. This article analyses these issues using a qualitative and quantitative analysis derived from research at Dangjia Ancient Village, Shaanxi, China. It identifies changing patterns in demand and shifts in the modes of meeting those demands – from modes that are individually based to those that are dependent on local government interventions. Much of this change is due to deficiencies in local social and financial capital. Suggestions are made regarding ways to improve the sustainability of rural tourism, which have a wider application on a national and international scale.     

Empty bowls: conceptualising the role of tourism in contributing to sustainable rural food security

Abstract

It has been suggested that the food insecurity situation prevalent in many parts of the developing world could be alleviated through the creation of tourism-based alternative livelihoods. However, while tourism has been framed as a tool for poverty reduction and livelihood improvement, less attention has been paid to the direct tourism food security link. It is the intention of this article to bring tourism and food security together thereby providing a conceptual discussion for addressing the tourism-food security nexus. A model is deductively developed through review of relevant previous studies linking tourism and its relationship with development, poverty, food security, livelihoods and sustainability. The discussion examines the drivers of these relationships through drawing together extant research relating to tourism, and other livelihood activities and sectors. By doing so, the discussion highlights the key concerns for tourism to work effectively in relation to food security. The importance of sectoral and policy integration in terms of ensuring beneficial relationships across sectors is emphasized. It is concluded that understanding the tourism-food security linkage is crucial for combating poverty in general, and food insecurity specifically.     

Resident attitudes toward sustainable community tourism

This study examined, using social exchange theory, a range of variables involved in determining resident attitudes toward tourism development and the adoption of sustainable tourism. After a comprehensive review of the literature on the role of residents in tourism development, and of the use of social exchange theory, 430 completed questionnaires obtained in a Texas town involved in tourism were analyzed. A structural equation model was utilized to understand the effects of selected components of sustainability on the attitudes of the respondents about future tourism development and to test hypothesized causal relationships among the variables. The findings revealed that three major components of sustainable tourism, namely long-term planning, full community participation and environmental sustainability within tourism, are critically related to support for tourism and to the positive and negative impacts of tourism. The paper uses the findings to suggest critical implications that local governments need to consider when developing tourism.     

Minority community participation in tourism: A case of Kanas Tuva villages in Xinjiang,China

Generally western scholars argue that local tourism participation is a precondition for benefits reaching communities. However, in China, particularly in some ethnic minority areas, this paradigm is not easily put into practice. Based on a study in the Kanas Nature Reserve of Xinjiang combining the use of a questionnaire and in-depth interviews, the means by which Tuva residents participated in, and derived benefits from tourism was investigated, and local stakeholders' attitude about community participation ascertained. The results indicate a low level of community participation and the implications of this for future tourism development are discussed with reference to the future development of tourism in the Kanas Reserve.     

Residents’ Participation,Perceived Impacts,and Support for Community-based Ecotourism in Cambodia: A Latent Profile Analysis

Throughout Cambodia, community-based ecotourism (CBET) has been initiated and established to generate additional income for local people and to conserve local natural resources since the early 1990s. However, few studies have addressed residents' attitude towards CBET. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify the residents' attitude towards CBET. The study classified 209 residents of Yeak Laom CBET in north-eastern Cambodia with respect to their participation in non-remunerative and remunerative activities, perceived impacts on livelihood assets and livelihood outcomes, and support for CBET. Rather than the conventional cluster analysis used by most previous studies, Latent profile analysis was employed. The study suggests that residents of a CBET may consist of four attitude clusters, namely Absolute Supporter (69%), Beneficiary Supporter (14%), Concerned Supporter (11%), and Ambivalent (6%). In conclusion, most residents of a CBET are likely to support CBET development and believe that it has positive impacts on their livelihood assets and outcomes, albeit with little involvement. The residents of the study area can be considered as a tourism-hungry community.     

Assessing ecotourism in an Indigenous community: using,testing and proving the wheel of empowerment framework as a measurement tool

Many of the issues confronting Indigenous peoples result from disempowered communities. Conversely, where communities are empowered, usually as a consequence of landownership, they are able to actively participate in, and benefit from, economic activities such as tourism. In this study, a framework titled the wheel of empowerment framework is used to demonstrate how the level of empowerment/disempowerment in five dimensions can be measured. The dimensions tested are economic, psychological, social, political and environmental. Indicators to measure the level of empowerment for each dimension were developed in a three-stage research process commencing with semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, followed by focus groups with community members from Coba, a Mayan village located near Cancun in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. Appropriate indicators were identified and used to assess community levels of empowerment. Results show that the ability of communities to develop sustainable ecotourism businesses requires support from external stakeholders including governments and the private sector as well as internal stakeholders including the local community and importantly from community leaders. The results also show that empowered communities are able to derive considerable social and economic benefits from ecotourism business ventures and make a positive contribution to the ongoing maintenance of sustainability of their local environment.     

Mega-events as drivers of community participation in developing countries: The case of Shanghai World Expo

Within a wide body of literature it has been argued and demonstrated that community participation in tourism development is advantageous in terms of the sustainability and effectiveness of the development policies adopted. However, over time, doubts have been raised about whether community participation should take place in developing countries. There are major concerns regarding the immaturity and the incompliance of the political and social conditions of developing countries in relation to the requirements necessary for an effective participatory planning. In this paper, we argue that mega-events, due to their wide scope and the key role that large groups of stakeholders play in their success, may represent a driver for community participation in developing countries. In order to explore our idea, we will analyse tourism development and the planning of a mega-event within the Yangtze River Delta area, driven by the organisation and preparation of the Shanghai World Expo. According to our evidence, some initial elements of participative decision-making have indeed developed around the organisation of this mega-event, even though China has historically been considered refractory towards community participation. Finally, we discuss the findings in the light of existing knowledge to elicit significant questions about community participation in tourism development within developing countries and to address further research on this topic.     

旅游能缓解保护地人与野生动物冲突吗?

人与野生动物冲突正成为我国自然保护地管理的显性问题,理解并寻找缓解人与野生动物冲突的方法成为重要研究问题。发展旅游被视为缓解此类冲突的重要手段,但已有研究尚未系统地评估旅游的缓解作用。本研究通过整合性综述的方法,探讨旅游能否以及如何缓解人与野生动物冲突这一问题。研究发现旅游对人与野生动物冲突的影响是多重的。对于辐射范围内的社区,旅游通过给社区带来经济利益,可以提高居民对野生动物的容忍度,从而缓解冲突。但旅游经济利益分配存在不充足、不平等和不匹配等问题,因而其缓解冲突的效应也不均衡。有些旅游活动还会产生负面生态影响,导致野生动物对人类习惯化和种群数量过度增长,进而加剧景区周边社区与野生动物冲突。本文最后建议加强对旅游的分配正义、生态影响和社会文化视角的研究。     

Community engagement in drive tourism in Ireland: case study of the Wild Atlantic Way

ABSTRACT

This paper presents research, which investigates community engagement in drive tourism in Ireland. In particular, it focuses on the Wild Atlantic Way (WAW), Ireland’s first long distance drive touring route stretching along the Atlantic coast for 2500?km from Donegal to West Cork. Face-to-face surveys were carried out to obtain a representative sample of community stakeholders along this touring route. The findings provide insight into the level of community engagement with drive tourism on the WAW with a high level of approval for the project but a low level of community integrated involvement with this drive-tourism product. This paper concludes that while there are low levels of community engagement with the WAW, there is a significant level of community support for the development of the WAW. However, to acquire community engagement in tourism development requires sustainable planning to maximize community benefits and minimize community costs thus increasing community participation, which is somewhat lacking.     

Friction in the forest: a confluence of structural and discursive political ecologies of tourism in the Ecuadorian Amazon

Abstract

Tourism in the Anthropocene is a powerful driver of global connections that has direct consequences for social and environmental well-being across the planet. This political ecological analysis of tourism in the Ecuadorian Amazonian presents ethnographic vignettes to account for the ways that interwoven global discourses related to biodiversity conservation and community development are encountered, contested, and leveraged to advance particular approaches to tourism at the local level. We invoke Tsing’s theory of friction to frame these discursive encounters in the context of tourism-related decision-making in the community of Misahuallí, including instances of discursive shifts being leveraged into improved well-being of local residents. This paper makes an important contribution to the scholarship on the political ecology of tourism by bringing the emic perspectives of local residents to the forefront and by demonstrating the value of Tsing’s friction metaphor for analyzing the global connections inherent in tourism. Frictions between inequities and imbalances of power, perpetuated by both the structures and discourses associated with the use of tourism to address conservation and development objectives, remain at the vanguard of tourism research as we move through the Anthropocene.     

Social conflict in communities impacted by tourism

This paper is based upon 12 months of ethnographic study while living among the Tuva and Kazakh people in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China. Based on observation, interviews, participation and secondary documents the paper uses Coser's theory of Social Conflict to suggest a four part model of how tourism engenders different forms of social conflict and fluctuating alliances between stakeholders in an environment where tourism has been introduced by agents external to the indigenous community. The actors are ethnic groupings and members of those groups, governmental officials at local, regional and national level, intermediaries of the tourism industry and private sector entrepreneurs drawn from the majority and minority ethnic groups. Tensions are identified as being based on beliefs, resources and power, and a sequential pattern of primacy is identified consistent with stages of the tourist area life cycle.     

Issues in measuring success in community-based Indigenous tourism: elites,kin groups,social capital,gender dynamics and income flows

Tourism development is a key feature of the neoliberal economic development model. Through a mix of state and private investment, Indigenous communities in Mexico are encouraged to transform local cultural and environmental resources into tourist consumption sites. The process results in a shift toward reliance on tourism, in place of farming, leaving households with few alternative earning strategies amidst fluctuating tourist arrivals and income, confounding the relationship between tourism and sustainability and questioning the utility of tourism as a sustainable tool for development. This article analyses a community-based Indigenous tourism project in a rural Maya village in Mexico's Yucatan, and discusses strategies employed at household level to navigate the arrival of tourism. Funding agencies assessed this project based on a triple bottom line metric that accounts for ecological health, financial sustainability, and its relationship to local social capital; however, these fail to account for differences between local and non-local conceptions of authenticity, indigeneity, and success. From a social perspective, the project has exacerbated existing tensions and has arguably widened the gap between the politically and economically powerful and less powerful, marginalized families in the community. Questions about policy, governance systems, and elite domination and kin group control are raised.     

Human resources development for tourism in rural communities: A case study of Kerala

Considering the relative backwardness of rural areas, human resources development (HRD) seems to have a very important role in rural tourism development. However, tourism HRD in rural communities is affected by a number of drawbacks. In the absence of any significant private sector presence, especially during initial stages, the public sector need to take the initiative in equipping and empowering the local community to meaningfully participate in tourism. This paper suggests a multi‐pronged approach to educate and empower the members of the host community, the tourism industry personnel, and visitors to facilitate rural tourism development, which is sustainability‐oriented and can help localize the benefits. The experience of Kerala provides an example of how the public sector initiated HRD activities could contribute to the development of rural tourism, especially in engendering local entrepreneurial endeavors and giving tourism a higher profile. The Kerala experience represents some of the issues in HRD for rural tourism and suggests potential strategies for other rural communities involved in tourism development.