The effect of national culture on pro-environmental behavioural intentions of tourists in the UK and China

National culture can affect consumer behaviour, but there is limited empirical evidence to establish the exact magnitude of this effect in particular consumption contexts and in specific consumption markets. This paper contributes to knowledge by exploring and comparing the extent to which national culture may contribute to pro-environmental behaviour of tourists in the UK and China. By drawing upon the five dimensions or values of national culture proposed by Hofstede, Schwartz and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (Individualism, Power distance, Long-term Orientation, Harmony and Indulgence) and by applying the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling, the study establishes the causal relationships between the cultural backgrounds of tourists, their environmental knowledge, pro-environmental attitudes and pro-environmental behavioural intentions. The implications for policy-making, management and future research are discussed.     

The elusive impact of pro-environmental intention on holiday on pro-environmental behaviour at home

There is limited research studying how pro-environmental behavioural intentions gained in a tourism context subsequently influence intentions and actual behaviour at home. This study reports on a three-stage study that surveys Chinese domestic tourists on holiday, and at home one week and one month after the holiday experience. The findings suggest that the stated pro-environmental intention on holiday does not convert into actual pro-environmental behaviour at home. Neither pro-environmental intention nor pro-environmental behaviour are seen to change over time or location. It is the availability of infrastructure (physical context) that affects a change, as evidenced by Dinghu Mountain National Nature Reserve, which provides environmental information and significantly more facilities to enable pro-environmental behaviour than Chinese nationals find in their daily home environment. Implications are offered for ways to apply the ABC theory to policies that seek to achieve long-term environmental behavioural change, such as strong government policy interventions.     

How would the contextual features of a destination function together with individual factors to enhance tourists’ intention toward ST in Taiwan?

Abstract

Slow travel (ST), which emphasizes deeper experiences via slower transportation modes, has been promoted as an alternative to current practice and a more sustainable form of tourism. With lower GHG emissions being a national environmental goal in Taiwan, ST concepts have been garnering attention. The relationship between the environments of destinations and pro-environmental behavior of tourists has attracted relatively little academic attention. To remedy this, the current research establishes a fairly complete model for incorporating factors at the contextual level into the individual determinants useful in encouraging ST. The goal of this research is to understand how certain predictors directly and interactively influence the choices of tourists toward ST. This study collected 508 validly filled surveys addressing 13 industrial tourist destinations, and applied Hierarchical Linear and Nonlinear Modeling (HLM) analyses. In addition to the individual-level factors, including perceived benefits of tourism experiences and ages of tourists, the design of onsite tourism programs at the contextual level was one of the most influential drivers to encourage visitors’ ST intentions. Included in this research are the insights into how to promote ST and corresponding suggestions for tourism operations within the context of sustainable tourism and destination management.     

Non-compliance in national parks: An extension of the theory of planned behaviour model with pro-environmental values

Non-compliance at national parks is a major problem around the world. This study focused on visitors' intentions to venture off-trail at the Blue Mountains National Park, Australia (BMNP). An extension of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) with the new ecological paradigm of pro-environmental values (NEP) was developed and tested to understand visitors’ off-trail intentions. We surveyed 325 BMNP visitors through convenience sampling. Subjective norm was the strongest predictor followed by attitudes. The role of perceived behavioural control was not significant. The proposed extended TPB model had a marginal relationship between pro-environmental values and intentions using regression analysis. The overall study results suggested that the role of pro-environmental values is more suitable for predicting general environmental worldviews as compared to the TPB being more suitable for predicting specific behavioural intentions.     

Theory of planned behaviour: predicting tourists’ pro-environmental intentions after a humpback whale encounter

Nature-based experiences can contribute to individuals’ connection to nature and intentions toward sustainable environmental behaviours. Conservation psychology can use tourism as a platform to modify tourists’ intentions and behaviours regarding key marine threats such as single-use plastics. This study examined changes to pro-environmental intentions, particularly regarding plastic use, in 267 nature-based tourists from Australia and Tonga who completed a whale watching/swim experience. A theory of planned behaviour (TPB) framework was used incorporating moral norms and environmental identity, which have been previously implicated in explaining pro-environmental actions. This study found that including moral norms in the TPB model significantly increased the ability to predict pro-environmental intentions. Further, when controlling for the TPB and moral norm variables, environmental identity explained a further 15% of tourists’ pro-environmental intentions. The findings suggest the original TPB model may be less suitable within a marine conservation context. Collectively, positive nature-based experiences, environmental identity, and moral norms are important in understanding tourist’s intentions to engage in sustainable environmental behaviours.     

Residentsʼ attitudes and behavioural support for tourism in host communities

ABSTRACT

In our study of the “perceptions–attitudes–behaviours” sequence, we explain how resident perceptions of tourism’s impacts on host communities influence not only their attitudes towards tourism, but also their attitudes towards tourists – i.e. a new variable that has recently been introduced in literature. Moreover, we introduce the behavioural support, a concept that denotes a higher level of involvement and engagement of residents with their communities in comparison with the traditional attitudinal support. Our results indicate: (1) the residents’ perception of the positive economic and cultural impacts of tourism are the main variables influencing their attitudes towards tourism and tourists; and (2) both types of attitudes influence on behavioural support for tourism in host communities.     

Are there cultural limits to tourism?

This article poses the question: are there cultural limits to tourism? It argues that tourism is a culture industry in the sense that it markets cultural products to tourists as cultural experiences. The three elements of tourism as culture are: the cultural foundations of tourism products, the sophistication of tourists’ perceptions and experiences of tourist cultures, and the cultural consequences of tourism development on resident communities. Yet these aspects are usually treated in a tokenistic way in favour of economic and environmental considerations, ignoring the cultural consequences of major changes to destination communities as a result of tourist development. This article proposes that the changes and consequences of tourism on the culture of destinations and on the culture of tourists should be central to debates about sustainable tourism development. The article proposes a number of conditions or indicators to identify the matrix of impacts of tourism from which acceptable and unacceptable limits can be determined. The use of these indicators should be central to planning, management and monitoring practices to achieve sustainable tourism.     

Corporate social marketing in tourism: to sleep or not to sleep with the enemy?

ABSTRACT

Social marketing is regarded as an effective consumer-oriented approach to promoting behavioural change and improved well-being for individuals, communities and society. However, its potential for tourism, especially sustainable tourism, remains under-researched. This article examines the utilisation of social marketing by tourism businesses. A search strategy identified 14 behavioural change programmes that involved tourism businesses. Half of these programmes label themselves social marketing; the others tend to be part of corporate social responsibility efforts, using a form of corporate social marketing (CSM). Most programmes seek to encourage pro-environmental behaviours in tourists, tourism businesses and other stakeholders including suppliers. Although tourism businesses can develop social marketing programmes alone, typically they collaborate with public and non-profit agencies as partners and sponsors. The strength of the tie between the promoted behaviour and the sale of a company's product varies considerably. It is suggested that social marketing can make significant contributions to environmentally sustainable tourism. However, this research also suggests that social marketing is not a substitute for, but rather an essential complement to, technological and regulatory approaches to climate change. Changing behaviour is a long process: without a long-term commitment from private sector companies, CSM programmes will fail to achieve behavioural change goals.     

Fostering visitors’ pro-environmental behaviour in an urban park

Recognizing the increasing importance of sustainable environment, this research explored visitors’ pro-environmental decision-making process in an urban park context. This study investigated the relationships among attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behaviour control, positive and negative anticipated emotions as well as behavioural intentions. The results suggest that positive anticipated affects positively influenced low-effort and high-effort pro-environmental behavioural intentions. In addition, positive anticipated affects mediated the relationship between cognitive factors and behavioural intentions. Interestingly negative anticipated affects did not influence behavioural intentions. Further analysis revealed subjective norm was the strongest predictor of intentions, especially the low-effort pro-environmental behavioural intentions. The research advances the conceptual understanding of the role of each construct in generating park visitors’ intentions to perform environmentally responsible behaviours while visiting an urban park.     

On linguistic relativity and pro-environmental attitudes in tourism

Language is a key cultural and cognitive attribute which can shape the way people think and behave. Research in economics has tested the influence of language on human consumption and found that languages that explicitly mark future events, i.e. so-called future-time-reference or strong FTR languages, may engage their speakers in less future-oriented attitudes and actions. This phenomenon is known as linguistic relativity. By applying its principles to tourism, this study investigated the impact of language on pro-environmental attitudes of tourists. Comparative analysis of Korean (strong FTR language) and Mandarin (weak FTR language) speaking tourists revealed substantial differences in attitudes. Although tourists possessed good knowledge on the environmental impacts of tourism, this knowledge did not translate into high pro-environmental attitudes for Korean speakers while it did for Mandarin. This suggests that language can shape the attitudes of tourists towards environmental impacts. Implications for management, policy-making and future research are discussed.     

Toward an understanding of online information processing in e-tourism: does national culture matter?

Tourism is undoubtedly among the industries that better reflect the effects of globalization, technological advances (i.e. the Internet) being one of the most relevant drivers. Given the current market saturation of this sector, a better understanding of how tourists from different cultures process online information and forge their attitudes and behavioral intentions is called for. Nevertheless, national culture may have a major influence on the effectiveness of online tourist marketing activities. This study contributes to the extant body of knowledge via the analysis of the influence of perceived risk on how tourists process the information while browsing a tourist destination website, form their attitudes and behavioral intentions toward the destination. The effect of national culture on such antecedents is examined via a cross-cultural research to compare Spanish and British cultures. A theoretical model is proposed to integrate the effect of perceived risk and variables regarding technology acceptance on tourist responses.     

Evaluating user-generated content in social media: an effective approach to encourage greater pro-environmental behavior in tourism?

Appealing to tourists’ intrinsic interest for high-quality tourism environments, and thus encouraging them to act with a greater sense of personal responsibility toward the environment, could be critical to promoting sustainable tourism. Proliferating media channels makes the choice, style and delivery of pro-environmental messages a key issue for tourism marketers and management. Social media has become a recognized important channel for tourism information, with user-generated content (UGC) being more trusted than official channels, yet there is little knowledge about its potential role in activating pro-environmental norms. This study investigates that issue. Focusing on the conjoining aspects of personal and social norms for the first time, we propose a hypothetical model to explain the direct and indirect effects of pro-environmental UGC in activating tourists’ pro-environmental behavioral intentions. Working in a Chinese context, where social media plays an increasing role, the research, using a web-based sample (N = 1043), UGC-linked pro-environmental knowledge and awareness, was found to have a strong role in activating pro-environmental norms, creating a pro-environment online community, and increasing tourists’ level of engagement in pro-environmental social media activity. The study highlights the effectiveness of social media channels with UGC providing persuasive communications able to impact sustainable behaviors.     

Balancing the dual mandate of conservation and visitor use at a Canadian world heritage site in an era of rapid climate change

Abstract

National parks in Canada operate under the dual mandate of conservation and visitor use, which involves balancing ecological integrity and nature-based tourism activities. Climate-induced environmental change may increase the existing tension between conservation and visitor use as major tourism resources located in protected areas (PAs) are projected to undergo large-scale changes. This study draws upon the behavioural approach, scenario planning, and landscape visualizations to examine the relationship between climate change impacts, visitor perceptions, and visitor experience management at the Athabasca Glacier in Jasper National Park, Canada. Four tourism development scenarios defined by two management drivers (ecological integrity and visitor demand) with corresponding storylines and visualizations were developed for 2050. The visualized scenarios were presented to visitors (n?=?304) in a survey to understand potential implications on visitor satisfaction. The results suggest that park managers need to find a balance between ecological integrity and visitor use in a way that ensures commercialized tourism development is limited, educational material is prioritized, and ecological integrity is maintained. While understanding the behaviour of future tourists is complex, it is a critical component of climate change adaptation planning and decision-making processes that needs to be prioritized by policymakers and PAs managers.     

Behavioral responses of 3S tourism visitors: Evidence from a Mediterranean Island destination

This empirical research deepens the current knowledge of tourism destination images by conceptualizing the effects of sun, sand, and sea (3S) tourism. The study investigates its impact on tourist attitude toward 3S tourism. This project also examines the impact of attitudes toward 3S tourism on visit intentions and word-of-mouth intentions as two behavioral outcomes. The study focuses on the mental representations of 3S tourism by tourists. Destination images (mental representations of destinations) can be defined, operationalized, and measured in a variety of ways; this study investigates the images and attitudes held by tourists toward 3S tourism in Cyprus, along with their desired behavioral responses. In the study, 410 survey questionnaires were administered to tourists during the summer of 2017. The results revealed that images of 3S tourism had a positive impact on tourist attitudes. Visit intentions and word-of-mouth intentions were enhanced by improving tourists' attitudes toward 3S tourism.     

Relationships between place attachment,place satisfaction and pro-environmental behaviour in an Australian national park

Place attachment is a multidimensional construct comprising place dependence, place affect, place identity, and place social bonding. Yet, studies investigating the relationships between place attachment, place satisfaction, and pro-environmental behaviour have not investigated its pluralistic nature. Using data from 452 visitors to the Dandenong Ranges National Park, Australia, this study investigates these four dimensions of place attachment and their relationships with place satisfaction and pro-environmental behavioural intentions. Findings suggest that the four place attachment constructs are significantly associated with place satisfaction. Results suggest that it is necessary to consider pro-environmental behavioural intentions as a two-factor structure construct, comprising low and high effort pro-environmental behaviour. Place satisfaction is associated with low effort pro-environmental behavioural intentions. Place affect is significantly associated with both types of environmental behavioural intentions. Place identity is not associated with either type of environmental behavioural intentions. A significant association is also noted between low effort and high effort pro-environmental behavioural intentions. Practical applications of the study include marketing aimed at encouraging repeat visitation, with sophisticated message development and delivery building emotional attachment, a sense of belonging, and enhanced personal meaning. Heritage interpretation could use affect and emotion to enhance visitor satisfaction and experience, coupled with an outcomes-focused communication plan.     

Can Ecotourism Interpretation Really Lead to Pro-Conservation Knowledge,Attitudes and Behaviour? Evidence from the Galapagos Islands

Proponents of ecotourism within protected areas believe that tour design and interpretation can help mitigate the negative impacts of tourism, human and environmental, and build an educated and motivated constituency that supports environmental conservation and social improvements. However, ecotourism's claims to achieve those objectives are largely untested, and linkages between tourism's operational characteristics and positive changes in tourists” environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviours are largely unexplored. This exploratory research investigated the efforts of one Galapagos National Park tour operator to explore whether a well-conceived interpretation/ecotourism product could influence tourists” educational outcomes and support of environmental conservation. Results suggest that well-designed and delivered interpretation during the ecotourism experience can increase knowledge of the host-protected area, supportive attitudes towards resource management issues facing the host-protected area, general environmental behavioural intentions and philanthropic support of conservation.     

海上丝绸之路旅游体验价值对旅游者文化传播行为的影响

旅游是文化传播的载体,旅游者是文化传播的主体。本文基于情绪评价理论和社会认同理论,构建基于民族自豪感和文化认同的中介效应模型,考察海上丝绸之路（以下简称"海丝"）旅游体验价值对旅游者文化传播行为的影响机制。研究结果表明：旅游体验功能价值和符号价值通过民族自豪感和文化认同影响旅游者的文化传播行为。旅游者在海丝文化旅游体验中形成的集体身份认知诱发民族自豪感,进而将海丝文化符号与民族集体记忆建立情感连接,形成文化认同;在民族自豪感和文化认同的驱使下,旅游者将高度的情感能量转化为具体的文化传播行为。旅游者体验到的民族自豪感和文化认同越多,则实施文化传播行为的可能性越大,文化传播行为又强化了旅游者对自身群体身份的认同。因此,应进一步凝练海丝文化元素符号,凸显海丝文化成就,提高旅游体验价值,提升旅游者民族自豪感与文化认同,进而促进文化传播。     

Polar Bear Viewers as Deep Ecotourists: How Specialised Are They?

Studies exploring the impact of environmental interpretation on visitors’ conservation knowledge, attitudes and behaviour often measure impacts as visitors exit tourism sites. For ease of measurement, their intentions are often used as indicators of behaviour change. Recent longitudinal studies suggest that intentions may be poor indicators of long-term behaviour change. This study examines both the behavioural intentions and the long-term conservation behaviour of 100 Australian families participating in a wildlife viewing experience. Respondents who reported being negatively or positively emotionally involved in the experience were more likely to indicate an intention to change their behaviour. New ideas about animals and their habitats were also significantly correlated with the development of positive behavioural intentions. Three months later, for 10 of the 13 conservation behaviours explored, the majority of respondents who intended to increase their participation did not. Implications for using intentions as an indicator of programme effectiveness are discussed. The importance of providing post-visit support that incorporates specific strategies, localised examples, petitions and activities to help visitors convert their intentions into behaviour prior to their enthusiasm waning is highlighted. Suggestions are made for more longitudinal studies in this area.     

Active engagement with nature: outdoor adventure tourism,sustainability and wellbeing

Abstract

This article draws on the conflicting arguments surrounding outdoor adventure tourism activities to determine if such activities might usefully be considered beneficial for humans and nature, and how they might offer avenues for sustainable tourism practice. Research in the field has often examined outdoor adventure activities through a lens that either highlights their negative environmental impacts or has sought to conceptualise motivations and/or experiences. In this article, we argue that through practices that are often seen as destructive, there is the possibility to think differently about human-nature relationships and pro-environmentalism. To explore these issues, we draw on data collected from a series of semi-structured interviews with outdoor adventure tourists. Our analysis highlights how outdoor adventure tourism facilitates reconnections to nature, offering potential wellbeing impacts and pro-environmental attitudes and behaviours. We conclude that outdoor adventure activities as a form of sustainable tourism have potential implications for our understanding of, and engagement with, sustainability, mental health and wellbeing.     

How destination music affects tourists’ behaviors: travel with music in Lijiang,China

ABSTRACT

Recent music tourism researches are notable owing to growing socioeconomic significance of music. But the question about how music affects tourists’ behaviors in travel practice remains there. This study explores the effects of music on tourists’ behaviors by deploying a survey of tourists in Lijiang old town which is famous for abundant musical cultures. Results show that tourists’ behavioral intentions are influenced by music-induced emotions which are stimulated by music perception and music cognition. This paper provides a new insight into music characteristics in tourism and new ways for how tourism destinations engage with music.