Community-based tourism enterprises: challenges and prospects for community participation; Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust,Botswana

This study assesses community participation in a community-based tourism enterprise in Botswana, the Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust, founded in 1992. Data were collected using structured and semi-structured questionnaires, interviews with key stakeholders and community focus group discussions. Results indicate that although Community-Based Natural Resource Management is popular in many southern African nations, communities still face challenges and constraints which hinder their participation in community-based enterprises. While some other studies in Botswana indicate the value of community-based tourism, 95% of adult residents in the Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust area did not know who owned the Trust, and 98% had never been to the Trust's lands. There was community disappointment about loss of cattle grazing and other land-related benefits, lack of communication with the community, lack of benefits, the low numbers employed and the slow progress of the project which did not record a profit until 2008. But the Trust now has over 25% of the rhinos in Botswana and has seen visitor numbers rise from 1820 in 1996 to over 21,000 in 2008. Suggestions for the future include appointment of a community liaison officer, training for local people in tourism and management and use of single-community rather than multi-community trusts.     

Assessing ecotourism in an Indigenous community: using,testing and proving the wheel of empowerment framework as a measurement tool

Many of the issues confronting Indigenous peoples result from disempowered communities. Conversely, where communities are empowered, usually as a consequence of landownership, they are able to actively participate in, and benefit from, economic activities such as tourism. In this study, a framework titled the wheel of empowerment framework is used to demonstrate how the level of empowerment/disempowerment in five dimensions can be measured. The dimensions tested are economic, psychological, social, political and environmental. Indicators to measure the level of empowerment for each dimension were developed in a three-stage research process commencing with semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, followed by focus groups with community members from Coba, a Mayan village located near Cancun in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. Appropriate indicators were identified and used to assess community levels of empowerment. Results show that the ability of communities to develop sustainable ecotourism businesses requires support from external stakeholders including governments and the private sector as well as internal stakeholders including the local community and importantly from community leaders. The results also show that empowered communities are able to derive considerable social and economic benefits from ecotourism business ventures and make a positive contribution to the ongoing maintenance of sustainability of their local environment.     

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest of Palenque: empowerment issues in sustainable development

Indigenous ecotourism in the Mayan rainforest has received little research attention. This study examines issues related to the level of empowerment in a Mayan village located near the Palenque World Heritage Site in southern Mexico. An adapted empowerment framework was used to assess community empowerment and its relationship with stakeholders’ participation by collecting the views of internal and external stakeholders in indigenous ecotourism. Using a checklist of 60 empowerment indicators, the study developed a wheel of empowerment tool that graphically illustrates and compares levels of empowerment/disempowerment in local communities. Results indicate that although there is a will from many villagers to participate in tourism, lack of knowledge, limited economic resources and the poor negotiation skills of local leaders have disempowered the community from undertaking ecotourism ventures. Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have not supported the community until recently, the private sector has played little part, and while the Mexican government is shaping the course of indigenous ecotourism with support programmes, state agencies have resisted local ecotourism development. Overall, the community fell below the midpoint on the Wheel of Empowerment Scale. These findings show a need for more effective empowerment strategies to maximise community involvement in managing cultural and natural resources for tourism development.     

An alternative approach to community-based ecotourism: a bottom-up locally initiated non-monetised project in Papua New Guinea

Community-based ecotourism (CBET) is presented as a tool for conservation and sustainable development by conservation practitioners and development agencies, but is reported to have achieved little. Several scholars argue that many problems stem from inadequate power relationships between external actors and local communities, leading to low community participation. This study opens a debate on governance and social enterprise in CBET by examining a bottom-up approach to community-based ecotourism based on a small-scale CBET initiative in an amenity-poor remote indigenous community in Papua New Guinea. This initiative is unique in the following aspects: it was initiated by a community member; external assistance was advisory only; no external financial assistance was given; and it has taken place in a non-monetised economy. Participant observation and in-depth interviews with local key informants were used to identify community-defined positive/negative impacts and community participation processes. Overall, there was substantial support for the project; it contributed to community welfare, generated economic benefit, had positive conservation outcomes and from the viewpoint of the community had no adverse cultural impacts. One of the keys for success was the development of a strong community agency that led to high community participation and individual rather than the community ownership.     

Applying the resilience principles for sustainable ecotourism development: A case study of the Nakdong Estuary,South Korea

When studying sustainable ecotourism, the ecotourism system can be better understood as a complex association of various elements that affects the local society and wildlife habitats. The purpose of this study is to plan an ecotourism system for the wise ecotourism resource management of estuary wetlands by using a resilience principle-based systems thinking approach. This study suggests an integrated management plan that considers diversity, connectivity, learning, participation, and polycentric governance to solve universal and important issues, such as estuary dam removal, urbanization, and natural resource use in the estuary's social-ecological system. The ecotourism system plans suggested in this study include minimizing ecological conflict and load through an improved sense of responsibility among stakeholders and strengthened protective activities. The results of this study suggest appropriate roles for various stakeholders in the management of tourism resources that can be used to establish new guidelines for ecotourism destination planning.     

Local perspectives of ecotourism development in Tawushan Nature Reserve, Taiwan

This paper examines local responses to potential ecotourism development in the Tawushan Nature Reserve located in southeastern Taiwan. Community attitude and intention toward four dimensions of ecotourism, including conservation of natural resources, preservation of cultural tradition, sustainable community development, and participation in ecotourism planning and management, were measured. Furthermore, the paper examines whether or not there is congruence between community attitude and intention toward ecotourism development. Analysis is based on data collected using face-to-face questionnaire interviews in two indigenous communities consisting primarily of the Paiwan ethnic group. The study findings show that local people hold generally positive views of the measures necessary to achieve ecotourism; however, their intentions to engage in behaviors to support these measures do not entirely match with their positive views. This suggests that while local residents may support ecotourism development based on international guidelines, their intentions to act will depend on local environmental, social, and politico-economic conditions. It is suggested that issues related to community empowerment, relationship between government and communities, value conflicts introduced by ecotourism development, and the dynamics among and between various community groups will need to be addressed if positive community intention to participate in ecotourism is to be encouraged.     

Residents’ Participation,Perceived Impacts,and Support for Community-based Ecotourism in Cambodia: A Latent Profile Analysis

Throughout Cambodia, community-based ecotourism (CBET) has been initiated and established to generate additional income for local people and to conserve local natural resources since the early 1990s. However, few studies have addressed residents' attitude towards CBET. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify the residents' attitude towards CBET. The study classified 209 residents of Yeak Laom CBET in north-eastern Cambodia with respect to their participation in non-remunerative and remunerative activities, perceived impacts on livelihood assets and livelihood outcomes, and support for CBET. Rather than the conventional cluster analysis used by most previous studies, Latent profile analysis was employed. The study suggests that residents of a CBET may consist of four attitude clusters, namely Absolute Supporter (69%), Beneficiary Supporter (14%), Concerned Supporter (11%), and Ambivalent (6%). In conclusion, most residents of a CBET are likely to support CBET development and believe that it has positive impacts on their livelihood assets and outcomes, albeit with little involvement. The residents of the study area can be considered as a tourism-hungry community.     

Local community participation in ecotourism and conservation issues in two nature reserves in Nicaragua

This paper explores the factors influencing community participation in ecotourism and how this affects conservation in the Nature Reserves of Mombacho Volcano and Datanlí-El Diablo in Nicaragua. Information was collected using individual structured and semi-structured interviews and focus groups, with local people, farmers and tour operators, combining quantitative and qualitative techniques. The farmers in the two communities are engaged in the protection of the reserves because of environmental concern and also because their own welfare is at stake. In different ways, the farmers and communities benefit from ecotourism, but not enough. Either they are excluded from the management system, or they lack resources to promote the sites and improve infrastructure. Community participation is to a large extent dependent on the management system, but it is not the only aspect required to make ecotourism successful. A minimum of governmental support to infrastructure and local entrepreneurship is required. In the case presented, there are direct economic benefits from ecotourism, as the records of visitors illustrate. But there are many differences between the two reserves and their communities, illustrating that ecotourism development is complex and demanding, and demonstrating that ecotourism is not a “one size fits all” approach to sustainable development.     

从系统学角度透视生态旅游利益相关者结构关系

从系统动力学著名的"内生"理论角度分析,生态旅游可持续发展的关键就是要建立各利益相关者之间的利益均衡机制,从而形成一体化的共生系统.本文将政府、社区、保护区、旅游企业和生态旅游者五个主要利益相关者作为生态旅游系统中的内生变量,用系统动力学方法,分析协调利益获取和分配、权利和义务、生态耗损和补偿等问题,初步构建各利益相关者之间的结构关系,为建立协调各方利益的参与机制提供理论参考.     

A structural model of residents’ intention to participate in ecotourism: The case of a wetland community

Ecotourism supports environmental conservation as well as generating economic opportunities. It additionally strongly emphasizes benefits to the local community and suggests that the involvement of the residents is important for the effective management of tourism. Accordingly, this study explores factors contributing to residents’ participation intention in ecotourism management and proposes a structural relationship between their participation intention, environmental knowledge, attitudes towards ecotourism and the appeal of tourist landscapes. Analysis indicates residents’ environmental knowledge positively affects attitudes towards ecotourism, which in turn directly and indirectly determine the intention to participate in ecotourism through their individual landscape affinity. Thus, residents’ involvement in ecotourism may be stimulated through a) appropriate management strategies aimed at increasing their environmental knowledge, b) encouraging positive ecotourism attitudes, and c) environmental planning that promotes residents’ affinity for local attractions.     

Community-based Tourism: A Factor-Cluster Segmentation Approach

Using a case study of the Kimana Wildlife Sanctuary in Kenya, this paper empirically investigates factors critical to successful community-based tourism development. Factor analysis of 17 survey items produced five key factors: inclusion of stakeholders, recognition of individual and mutual benefits, appointment of legitimate convenor, formulation of aims and objectives, and perception that decisions arrived at will be implemented. Hierarchical cluster analysis demonstrates a simultaneous presence of three different segments within the local community, revealing that ‘operatives’ are interested in participation in the project's activities, ‘opinion leaders’ are concerned with the community's benefits from the project while ‘official leaders’ value the success of the project.     

Assessment of the changing levels of livelihood assets in the Kampong Phluk community with implications for community-based ecotourism

In recent years, international attention has been rendered to development of ecotourism for poverty reduction and biodiversity conservation. We assessed local livelihood assets in Kampong Phluk Community before and after the introduction of the community-based ecotourism (CBET) governance system, where it was previously under the private company management system (SEAPAC). We used a sustainable livelihood framework to assess natural, physical, human, social, and financial assets by analyzing a set of panel data of 150 observations according to the scoring scale of zero (total dissatisfaction) to one (total satisfaction). We found that full implementation of CBET raised the overall average score of livelihood assets by 0.15. In particular, physical capital and human capital achieved remarkable growth by 0.25 to 0.23, respectively, while growth in natural capital and financial capital was statistically insignificant. Although CBET showed promising results, improving communication and providing community health care would motivate active participation in ecotourism development.     

Minority community participation in tourism: A case of Kanas Tuva villages in Xinjiang,China

Generally western scholars argue that local tourism participation is a precondition for benefits reaching communities. However, in China, particularly in some ethnic minority areas, this paradigm is not easily put into practice. Based on a study in the Kanas Nature Reserve of Xinjiang combining the use of a questionnaire and in-depth interviews, the means by which Tuva residents participated in, and derived benefits from tourism was investigated, and local stakeholders' attitude about community participation ascertained. The results indicate a low level of community participation and the implications of this for future tourism development are discussed with reference to the future development of tourism in the Kanas Reserve.     

A Community-Based Tourism Model: Its Conception and Use

Community participation in the tourism planning process is advocated as a way of implementing sustainable tourism. There are, however, few studies that detail tangible and practical ways to promote or measure participation. This paper reviews the principal theories used to discuss community participation, including the ‘ladder of citizen participation’, power redistribution, collaboration processes and social capital creation. These theories form the basis for defining a community-based tourism (CBT) model. The paper shows how this model can be used to assess participation levels in a study site, and suggests further actions required. The model is applied in a case study in Palawan, the Philippines, where an indigenous community previously initiated a community-based ecotourism project. The project resulted in a number of problems, including conflicts with non-indigenous stakeholders. The model identifies the current situation of the project and provides suggestions for improvement.     

南岭国家森林公园旅游企业主导的社区参与模式研究

社区是生态旅游利益相关者的关键角色之一.本文在有关社区参与生态旅游的理论研究和文献综述的基础上,针对我国生态旅游社区参与的实残,选取具有代表性的南岭国家森林公园为案例,通过对当地社区、旅游企业及政府等相关利益主体及其相互关系的研究,提出了"旅游企业主导的社区参与模式",并探讨了该模式可持续运作的关键环节和优化模式.因子分析的结果进一步表明,社区主人翁意识、公共福利、教育培训机会以及经济收益等,是影响社区参与生态旅游的自主性和可持续性的重要因素.研究结果丰富了生态旅游社区参与的理论,并对我国生态旅游的社区实践具有一定的参考价值.     

Can Sanctions and Rewards Explain Conformance Behaviour of Tour Operators with Ecotourism Guidelines?

Ecotourism's appeal as a conservation and development tool rests in its potential to provide local economic benefits while maintaining ecological resource integrity through low-impact, non-consumptive resource use. Some, however, question its contribution to conservation and community development, citing negative impacts, such as solid waste generation, habitat destruction, and sociocultural ills. This paper, based on a comparative study in Costa Rica, explores some of these issues. Study findings were mixed regarding ecotourism's effectiveness as a conservation and community development tool. Survey respondents saw legal restrictions as more influential than tourism in prompting declines in deforestation and hunting rates. Likewise, respondents did not feel tourism operators were significant players in raising environmental awareness. The research also revealed that direct employment in ecotourism was associated with pro-conservation practices, but indirect benefits showed stronger associations in generating pro-conservation perspectives. Little evidence was found to suggest that people are investing tourism-generated income in environmentally threatening practices. Research findings also indicated that scale influences tourism's benefits and negative impacts and that, where ecotourism dominates local economies, towns may become economically vulnerable. The paper concludes by recognising that ecotourism would be most effective as a component of a broader conservation strategy and offers suggestions to improve ecotourism's potential.     

中国生态旅游研究热点演变与趋势——基于CiteSpace知识图谱分析

生态旅游是旅游研究中的重要分支,在可持续发展理念和生态文明建设实践的影响和培育下,我国生态旅游理论研究和实践都取得了长足的进展。本文选取CNKI中国学术期刊网络出版总库的中文核心期刊和CSSCI来源期刊,对高关注度文献、关键词、作者、期刊特征进行了分析,基于CiteSpace知识图谱分析,结合生态旅游实践发展,将中国生态旅游研究划分为3个阶段,探索阶段的研究主要集中于内涵和理念的认知,发展阶段的研究热点主要有自然保护区域、生态旅游发展和生态建设等,深化阶段的研究主题更丰富,与乡村振兴、生态文明等战略的联系更紧密。最后,从基础理论与研究框架构建、生态旅游地健康价值与知识内涵、典型地域系统性研究、市场规律与培育、生态旅游影响及其演化规律、与地域文化互动融合、管理技术与社区参与7个方面对未来中国生态旅游研究趋势进行了预测。     

Community agency and sustainable tourism development: the case of La Fortuna,Costa Rica

Previous sustainable tourism research has called for the promotion of community-based tourism as a means of achieving sustainable development goals. Such community-based development has been noted as essential for sustainable practices because of its capacity to benefit local populations while reducing tourism's negative consequences. Nonetheless, some researchers have warned that community-based tourism, by itself, does not necessarily lead to sustainable practices. This study examines local social interactional elements necessary for the achievement of sustainable tourism practices. Such practices are attainable when certain attitudinal, organizational and/or behavioral conditions are present within a community. Using a case study methodology, this article examines the interactional elements by which residents of La Fortuna, Costa Rica, engaged in sustainable tourism practices. The study was based on the theoretical notion of the community field. It used key informant interviews and participant observation. The study shows how economic, social and environmentally sustainable practices were made possible through community agency, the construction of local relationships that increase the adaptive capacity of people within a common locality. Key factors found to enable community agency are strong intra- and extra-community interactions, open communication, participation, distributive justice and tolerance.     

Urban ecotourism: Defining and assessing dimensions using fuzzy number construction

This study assesses the dimensions of urban ecotourism. The indicators in this study undertaken in Taiwan were shaped by a novel approach, the fuzzy number construction approach. This approach possesses various advantages, including an ability was to cope with ambiguous issues; its comprehensive nature and the need for subjects to respond with a single number. The results revealed that economic factors played a lesser role than did social and environmental factors. Additionally the study reinforces the significant position of community participation while promoting urban ecotourism. The paper reports data and findings derived from two ecotourism destinations, one located in urban area and the other located in non-urban area. The findings indicate that “identifying with local culture” had the highest weight (7.19%), followed by “inclination of supporting environmental conservation” (7.06%),“satisfying local environment” (6.82%), “the 5 degree of habitat diversity” (6.58%),“inclination of urban ecotourism” (6.50%), and “coverage of the green areas” (6.36%). Implications for management indicate that urban park areas suffer greater stress due to recreational usage.     

The environment‐community symbiosis: A case for collaborative tourism planning

This article advances the proposition that sustainable tourism can be achieved through recognition that the public and private sector, the host communities and the natural environment are interdependent stakeholders in a complex tourism ‘domain’, where no single individual, agency or group can resolve strategic tourism issues by acting alone. The planning and management of this domain for the purpose of achieving sustainability requires moving away from traditional approaches towards dynamic collaboration among the stakeholders of the tourism development and planning domain. Collaboration provides a flexible process which evolves over time, enabling stakeholders to disseminate and manage problems or issues on an interactive basis. It offers an attractive alternative to adversarial problem solving methods in tourism planning and management, when inter or multi‐sectoral participation is required. The paper commences with a discussion of the shortfalls of traditional tourism planning processes and models, followed by an overview of collaboration ‘theory’. Examples are given which illustrate collaborative approaches in several mountain resort areas. An exploratory case study of tourism development and planning issues in the mountain community of Canmore, Alberta (Canada) is then presented, leading to a discussion and conclusion regarding the theoretical and practical applications of collaboration toward achieving sustainable tourism.