Nationality and work role interactions: A cultural contrast of Israeli and U.S. entrepreneurs' versus managers' needs

The globalization of business ventures and the parallel search for sources of international competitive advantage have stimulated research relating cultural differences to entrepreneurial and managerial behaviors. Recent work by McGrath, MacMillan, and Scheinberg (1992) encouraged studies of managers and entrepreneurs in different cultures, suggesting that these comparisons may “… shed additional light into the interrelations between social structure, wealth creation, and cultural beliefs” (McGrath el at. 1992, p. 116). This study follows that advice.Cultural differences are powerful determinants of behavior, and many studies support the notion that managerial behavior must adapt to the national cultural setting to achieve success. A growing stream of entrepreneurial behavior research has explored differences in motivational needs between entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs of different countries, and found parallel differences across cultures. Given these views, we might expect to find need differences between entrepreneurs and managers within countries however, some entrepreneurship researchers have concluded that U.S. managers and entrepreneurs are more alike than different.To better understand need profile differences between and within cultures, we use a theory that suggests that culture is an important determinant of work behavior. The process through which culture affects work behaviors is described in “Cultural Self-representation Theory” (Erez and Earley, 1993). Based upon this theory, inferences from the entrepreneurial archetype, and analysis of the contrast between the cultures of Israel and the U.S., we propose that: (1) entrepreneurs and managers have different motivational needs within some national cultures, and (2) across national cultures there are systematic differences in motivational needs. Based on these premises, an interaction hypothesis between work role and nationality is suggested because of the importance of both culture and work role in determining motivational need differences. Data are collected from over 370 Israeli and U.S. entrepreneurs and managers.Results support cultural self-representation theory for the Israeli-U.S. and entrepreneur-manager case, because interactions between nationality and work role are exposed for various needs. This finding suggests that cultural differences are indeed important for understanding management motivational needs in different nations, and that the effectiveness of entrepreneurial approaches to management may be culture-sensitive. The study illustrates work-role differences between Israeli managers and entrepreneurs. We confirm past conclusions about U.S. entrepreneur-manager need similarities, and suggest that these need similarities are supported by the individualistic culture within U.S. organizations.     

Mexico

Not understanding the cultural aspects of doing business overseas can jeopardize the success of international negotiations, entry strategies, joint ventures, technology transfer, marketing, and human resources. This article reports a study of the perceptions of U.S. and Mexican executives concerning the importance of 15 cultural dimensions of doing business in Mexico (our second largest trading partner). It found that, whereas Mexican executives believed more strongly than U.S. executives that the cultural dimensions of doing business in Mexico were more important than the product or service offered and the accompanying terms of sale, the U.S. executives, surprisingly, assigned higher levels of importance to the 15 cultural variables. Both Mexican and U.S. executives strongly agreed on which of the 15 variables were most important. All eight subgroups of U.S. executives assigned higher levels of importance to the 15 cultural aspects of doing business in Mexico than did their Mexican counterparts. When four comparisons of the executives of the eight subsets of U.S. companies‐large vs. small, border location vs. nonborder location, doing business in Mexico vs. not doing business there, and doing business there more than 5 years (pre‐NAFTA) vs. doing business there 5 years or less (post‐NAFTA)—were made of the level of importance they attached to the cultural variables, no significant differences were found. Based on the study's findings, implications for doing business in Mexico are indicated. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Cultural Differences Between U.S. and Russian Students

Abstract

The study explores differences in U.S. and Russian national work-related values. Comparing the results obtained using Hofstede's 1994 instrument with earlier, but very limited U.S. and Russian studies, differences in value orientation of U.S. and Russian cultures were found. A comparative examination of value orientations of U.S. (n = 73) and Russian (n = 75) students found differences that may affect international alliances. Despite exposure of Russian students to Western values, their cultural values remained almost totally unchanged. The study upheld cultural divergence. Implications for practice and future research are offered.     

A Cross-Cultural Study of the Ethical Orientations of Senior-Level Business Students

This study is a cross cultural investigation into the ethical orientations of business students in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Data were collected using a variation of an instrument developed by Dubinsky and Levi (1985) which measures the ethical orientation of respondents in a presumed retail environment. The instrument was subjected to test of reliability and validity and found to be very robust. No significant differences were found in the ethical disposition of Canadian and U.S. business students. However, a significant difference was found between the Canadian and U.S. students and those of Mexico. Implications are drawn for ethics education/training and areas are identified for future research.     

Comparing advertising effectiveness in South-American and North-American contexts: testing Hofstede's and Inglehart's cultural dimensions in the higher education sector

ABSTRACT

This research compares the effectiveness of advertising and relational marketing in two countries characterized by varying levels of both Hofstede's and Inglehart's cultural dimensions – Peru (high-power distance, high collectivism, survival and traditional values) and Canada (low-power distance, high individualism, self-expression and secular-rational values). Survey data from a high credence service sector (higher education) in both countries is used for the analysis. The results indicate that advertising and relational marketing have direct effects on choice in Peru, but do not have significant direct effects on choice in Canada. Advertising does, however, affect positively perceptual outcome measures (perceived marketing effectiveness) in Canada. Additionally, we find that advertising and relational marketing have an indirect impact on choice and perceived marketing effectiveness through the mediation of perceived informativeness and influencers in both countries. These results point to the need to account for mechanisms and mediating variables when building theoretical frameworks in cross-country studies.     

Do values or goals better explain intent? A cross-national comparison

Among six major lines of inquiry on motivations, two theories are especially pertinent to consumer behavior studies: values and goals. Several studies show that consumer behavior can be predicted on the basis of values or goals; this study examines which are the stronger predictors by presenting a cross-cultural comparison of the values and goals that may influence the behavioral intentions of U.S., Chinese, and French students to study abroad. As a service, study abroad has financial implications, represents a choice, and competes with other educational products. Therefore, goals appear to explain behavioral intentions better than do values, except among U.S. students. The goals and values associated with behavioral intentions differ across cultures and have different perceived dimensions, such that items cluster on those dimensions with specific meanings, depending on the culture. The different influences of values and goals on behavioral intentions may help marketing managers design more efficient marketing strategies in international markets. This paper thus contributes to the marketing literature by suggesting that national cultures moderate the effect of values and goals on consumer intentions.     

Marketing Accounting Services in the U.S. and Norway

Abstract

This study compares the general perceptions of marketing and the marketing experiences and training by accountants in the United States and Norway. The results of this study indicate there are differences in perceptions of marketing held by accountants in the U.S. and Norway and in their marketing practices. Accountants in the U.S. held stronger opinions on the importance of marketing accounting services, whereas accountants in Norway believed more strongly that reputation for quality work was more important than marketing. Over two-thirds of Norway accountants reported they did not use marketing concepts in their practice while over half of U.S. accountants indicated they did. A majority of Norway accountants indicated they did not need marketing because their clients come to them when they need their services. These findings demonstrate the importance of being cognizant of the differences in marketing professional services as accountants expand their understanding of global business and accounting practices.     

A reduced version of the horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism scale: A four-country assessment

Individualism/Collectivism is the most widely used cultural dimension in the marketing literature; yet researchers suggest that distinctions within cultures, such as the horizontal and vertical dimensions of Individualism and Collectivism (Singelis et al., 1995; Shavitt et al., 2006), may provide better insights into consumption behavior and responses to marketing stimuli. However, the 32-item attitudinal scale typically used to measure H/V dimensions has been plagued by measurement problems limiting its use and applicability in cross-cultural marketing and consumer research. This paper presents data from six samples in four countries (China, Denmark, India, the U.S.) conducted to test a parsimonious and psychometrically stable 14-item scale measuring the horizontal/vertical and individualist/collectivist dimensions of culture. Theoretical and methodological support for the new scale is offered. The 14-item reduced scale adequately taps into the domain of the construct.     

A Canadian perspective on NAFTA

Although most analysis of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has focused on the bilateral relationship between Mexico and the United States this article concentrates on the larger trading and investment linkages of Canada and the United States. From a Canadian perspective the NAFTA is an extension of (and improvement upon) the Canada–U.S. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1989. The FTA introduced new dispute settlement mechanisms that Canada views as essential to partially offset U.S. administered protection. The new rules-based system of the FTA is also the basis for the NAFTA, and it has been extended from the trade law regime to cover foreign investment disputes. All three parties in NAFTA will benefit from a rules-based system rather than the power-based system that permits U.S. producer interests to exploit the size asymmetries between the large triad market of the United States and the smaller open trading economies of Mexico and Canada. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Consumers un-tethered: A three-market empirical study of consumers' mobile marketing acceptance

This study examines factors influencing consumers' acceptance of mobile marketing across three influential markets, namely U.S., China, and Europe. The authors develop an integrative conceptual model on consumers' attitudes and behaviors toward mobile marketing. The authors incorporate three individual-level characteristics, namely personal attachment, innovativeness, and risk avoidance and investigate how permission-based acceptance influences the relationship between consumers' attitude and mobile marketing activity. Focusing on Generation Y consumers, the model is empirically tested with data from U.S., China, and Europe. The findings illustrate several cross-market differences and similarities regarding the relationships between individual-level characteristics, attitude, and mobile marketing activity. Research and managerial implications of these findings are discussed.     

Corporate Support for Employee Volunteerism Within Canada: A Cross-Cultural Perspective

Company support for employee volunteerism (CSEV) is one mechanism whereby businesses meet the escalating expectation for corporate social responsibility (CSR). Institutional theory is applied to examine patterns of convergence and divergence in CSR programs cross culturally, with a particular focus on intra-country cultural differences. Using a national (Canada) survey of businesses, we examine cross-cultural differences regarding CSEV in two regions of Canada—French Canada (Quebec) and English Canada. Our results suggest that cultural differences, rooted in historical conditions, may shape CSEV program implementation in Canada. Quebec companies are less likely to engage in CSEV. If they do encourage employee volunteerism, they may exclude certain cause types from support and appear to focus more on the external benefits of CSEV, such as community perception, than do firms in English Canada. Recognizing that no nation is culturally homogenous, our study illustrates that CSR and CSEV may vary significantly whenever or wherever cultural differences occur. Businesses and nonprofit organizations need to consider culture as an important variable when implementing corporate volunteer programs.     

Impact of Traditional Chinese Culture on Business-to-Business Relationship Marketing and Service Firm Performance

ABSTRACT

Purpose: This work addresses the mixed findings in relationship marketing studies regarding the importance of traditional culture-level (i.e., interpersonal) relationships on service firm outcomes.

Methodology/approach: This article leverages customer relationship marketing (CRM) theory to advance a framework for understanding the causal relationship between the Chinese cultural worldview and relationship marketing in order to better predict firm performance.

Findings: The author suggests that five major Chinese cultural characteristics—iren-qing, wa-pao, mianzi, chaxu-geju, and collectivism—can qualify the business-to-business (B-to-B) relationship building process and impact the effectiveness of interpersonal and/or group relationships on service firm outcomes.

Research implications: The study’s framework suggests that Chinese cultural characteristics, universal concepts manifest in the activities of Chinese society and organizations, have a positive effect on customer relationship marketing. Chinese culture characteristics can be used to generate excellent relationships with customers and thus create a consumer preference for certain companies and drive service marketing repurchase.

Originality/value/contribution: This study’s theoretical framework (a) distinguishes between Chinese cultural characteristic and relationship marketing relationships; (b) suggests that Chinese cultural characteristics and customer relationship marketing have a positive and substantial effect on service firm performance and that Chinese cultural characteristics are related to customer relationship marketing in their effect on service firm performance; and (c) provides managerially relevant guidelines for strategic sales planning.     

A Comparison of Communications Practices Among Indian and U.S. Scientists and Engineers

ABSTRACT

An investigation of communication practices among U.S. (n s= 90) and Indian (n = 71) engineers and scientists employed in the aerospace industry revealed statistically significant differences between the two cultures. The differences may be attributed to Hofstede's (1980) cultural dimensions of individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance; Hofstede and Bond's (1988) Confucian dynamism; and Hall's (1976) cultural context. Implications for practice address strategies to accommodate foreign cultures and to develop complementary approaches using the strengths of both cultures. Areas for future research are offered.     

A Cross Cultural Analysis of the Geographical Knowledge of U.S., Irish,Israeli, Mexican,and South Korean Business School Students

ABSTRACT

Geographical knowledge about foreign countries is considered to be a significant factor related to the successful marketing of goods and services in international markets-a not insignificant conclusion by experts given the sizable trade deficits run up by the United States in 2000 ($365 billion), 2001 ($346 billion), and 2002 ($435 billion).

Unfortunately, previous research has concluded that U.S. business school students-tomorrow's executives who will make decisions that will impact their firms' international operations-have inadequate levels of international geographical knowledge.

This article compares the geographical knowledge of U.S. business school students to that of business school students in four countries: Ireland, Israel, Mexico, and South Korea. The sub-par performance exhibited by the U.S. students and the impact of six independent variables on global geographical knowledge are used to develop a number of pedagogical conclusions designed to enhance the international geographical knowledge of U.S. business school students and students in foreign business schools and overcome the antipathy toward this subject matter that apparently exists within business schools and their various external constituencies.     

Investment and marketing strategies of Mexican companies in the United States: Preliminary evidence

Because of its geographic proximity to the United States and its favored position as a member of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Mexico has become an emerging player in the global marketplace, and this new position has motivated several Mexican companies to establish businesses in the United States. Attempts have been made to explain why Mexican firms have become global players, explanations that focus on several national and international factors. However, these factors omit important drivers of the process, including entry and marketing strategies. This study aims to 1) give an account of how and why Mexican companies enter the United States, and 2) identify some tendencies in the way U.S. subsidiaries of Mexican companies develop and use marketing strategies to serve U.S. markets. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Noticing Cultural Differences: Ad Meanings Created by Target and Non-Target Markets

Abstract

Target marketing is an increasingly crucial component of marketing strategy, particularly given the expanding cultural diversity of the nation's population. Prior research suggests marketers need to consider the nontarget market (consumers who perceive themselves not to be the target of an advertisement) as well as the target market. Further, researchers have called for a more meaning-based approach to understanding advertising and consumer behavior. The authors therefore explore the meanings created by target and nontarget viewers of advertising targeting black, white, and gay / lesbian cultures. Their results show that asymmetries in cultural expertise, power, distinctiveness, and stigmatization among those cultural groups influence the meanings created by target and nontarget viewers of ads targeting those groups.     

Antecedents of Taiwan Chinese Consumers’ Purchase Intentions Toward U.S.- and Japanese-Made Household Appliances

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this article is to understand the factors influencing Taiwan's Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions toward U.S. and Japanese household appliances. The authors attempt to develop and test a comprehensive model linking such purchase intentions to several constructs including Taiwan Chinese consumers’ openness to foreign cultures, consumer nationalism, product familiarity, traditional cultural values orientation, and product-country image. The result of analysis using structural equation modeling shows that consumer nationalism has a strong indirect effect on purchase intention via the product-country image construct. Taiwan Chinese consumers’ traditional cultural values orientation and openness to foreign cultures have direct effects on consumer nationalism and, hence, are important antecedents in explaining the purchase intentions toward foreign-made goods by Taiwan Chinese consumers. With the growing importance of the Chinese domestic market, this study provides international marketing managers with practical implications in important areas such as market segmentation, branding strategy, and market research and practices in the Chinese consumer market.     

The increasing internationalization of the international business classroom: Cultural and generational considerations

This article reviews the dynamic demographics of the international business classroom across five Anglo countries: the U.S.A., the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Figures indicate that business education is becoming increasingly international, and that the countries of origin of international business students are changing. Cultural impacts of this increasing internationalization upon international business pedagogy—as well as issues of generational expectations of the classroom experience—are considered, benefits and challenges of the increased cultural diversity in the classroom are discussed, and practical suggestions for instructors teaching in future international business classrooms are detailed.     

The making of Labatt ‘Blue’: The quest for a national lager brand, 1959–1971

Abstract

This article examines the creation of a national beer brand in Canada. It analyses the challenges faced by the marketing managers at John Labatt Limited ? one of Canada’s oldest and most successful brewers ? in solving the ‘national lager problem’ (i.e. the inability of Labatt’s ‘Pilsener’ to capture a significant share of the Canadian market). It examines how executives use marketing knowledge to recreate brand identities. It argues that the rebranding of ‘Pilsener’ as ‘Blue’ was successful because Labatt’s managers fashioned a new brand identity that downplayed the ‘ethnic’ heritage of the brand by appealing to a new ‘Canadian’ cosmopolitan modernity.