Changing Sources of Household Income,Poverty, and Sectoral Inequality in Sri Lanka, 1990–2006

Comparing dynamic changes in household income and poverty among urban, rural, and estate sectors in Sri Lanka from 1990 to 2006, this study finds that a shift of household income away from farm to nonfarm sources is accompanied by a significant improvement in household income and reduction in poverty, particularly in the rural sector. Major contributing factors are the rise in returns to labor, in general, and educated labor, in particular, due to the development of the nonfarm labor market. Persistently low income among estate households can be explained primarily by the limited availability of nonfarm employment opportunities and the low education levels of working members.     

Towards a new tax covenant

Summary In The Netherlands, the high tax burden on employment income cripples the labor market, whilst the highly differentiated, if low, tax burden on capital income distorts the capital market. Building on the experience with dual income taxation in the Nordic countries, a new tax covenant is proposed comprising lower average and marginal tax rates on labor income and a more even-handed treatment of capital income. Specifically, capital income should be taxed at a low, proportional rate. Flanking measures are required to improve the workings of the labor market; notably, social benefits for people who can work as well as housing subsidies should be reduced. More fundamentally, a change in the social order is desirable which places greater weight on equal opportunities instead of equal outcomes.Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when the treadeth out the cornDeuteronomy 25:4 The author is grateful to Richard Bird, Lans Bovenberg, Flip de Kam, Jeroen Kremers, Ruud de Mooij, Leif Mutén, and Peter Sørensen for their stimulating comments on an earlier version of this article.Adapted from the Dutch version of the commencement address delivered at Earsmus University Rotterdam on November 8, 1994. Amounts in guilders can be converted into dollars by applying the exchange rate: Dfl. 1=US$ 0.63 (March 31, 1995).     

Migrant farmworker earnings: A human capital approach

Migrant farmworkers are essential to the supply of low-cost agricultural produce. However, employment earnings of this vital labor force are approximately equal to the federal poverty income. This study examines the role of health capital investments in enhancing farmworker productivity and employment earnings. Health capital investments are found to have a larger marginal effect on earnings than other forms of human capital investments, such as education or experience.     

农村劳动力迁移为什么没有缩小城乡收入差距——以广东为例

广东经济发展过程中出现农村劳动力迁移量和城乡收入差距同时扩大的现象,本文从农村迁移劳动力在城市劳动力市场上的就业分布和农村劳动力迁移对城乡人力资本差距的影响两方面对此与传统经济学理论相悖的现象进行了分析.本文认为农村劳动力迁移没有缩小城乡收入差距一方面因为农村劳动力在城市劳动力市场受到歧视,一般在城市次要劳动力市场就业;另一方面因为农村劳动力迁移扩大了城乡人力资本差距,从而扩大了城乡收入差距.     

Trade liberalization and income inequality: The case for Pakistan

Trade liberalization policies have been adopted by many developing countries to increase economic growth and reduce poverty. While the positive relationship between trade liberalization and economic growth is generally well accepted, the impact of trade liberalization on poverty and income inequality is still unclear. The objective of this paper is to use real data and real trade agreements of the state of Pakistan, to examine the predictions made by trade models about the impact of trade liberalization on income inequality. To illustrate, the impacts of several alternative bilateral and regional free trade agreements are simulated on household income and income inequality in Pakistan. The results show that trade liberalization does not always lead to a decline in income inequality in the short run. Trade agreements that do improve income equality, favor agriculture and often hinge on a decline in urban and non-farm household income. In the long run, changes in income equality are more positive, suggesting that efforts might best be applied towards improving the mobility of labor and capital.     

Income inequities between black and white populations in southern nonmetropolitan counties

This article examines differences in the income status of black and white populations in Southern nonmetropolitan counties and discusses how various labor market, social, and human capital characteristics influence the income status of the respective groups. The data show an inconsistent pattern between black and white populations’ income level in Southern nonmetropolitan counties. The data also show that various structural/institutional (e.g., local labor market and human capital) and social/cultural (e.g., population) factors affect the income of black and white populations differently.     

Poverty in Ghana from an Assets‐based Perspective: An Application of Probit Technique*

Abstract: This paper extends the existing literature on poverty in developing economies by examining the effects of human capital, financial capital and physical assets on the incidence of poverty in both urban and rural Ghana. The following is found: low stocks of assets appear to be a more prevalent problem associated with poverty; the returns to human capital are positive and rise with higher educational attainment, irrespective of gender; the correlation between income distribution and incidence of poverty is positive; and ownership of human, physical and financial assets reduces the probability of being poor. Against the backdrop of growth‐oriented policies, the paper calls for investments in schooling, provision of institutional credit and an enabling environment for labour market activities as strategies for the reduction of poverty.     

转型劳动力市场中工资差距扩大分析

文章认为,我国劳动力市场转型主要是工资结构的调整以及人们在不同就业状态上的分化。劳动力市场改革也使得工资差距不合理的扩大。劳动力市场中收入分配失序的原因有国家规制、非价格机制和劳动力市场分割等。如果我国在构建和谐社会的过程中,采取新的发展战略,重构劳动力市场改革,那么,将不仅有利于经济效率的改善,也有利于收入分配更为平等。     

就业选择对区域间农民收入差异的影响：江苏的证据

江苏省农村居民家庭收入差距具有区域差异性、农业贡献递减性和工资性来源主导性等基本特征。就业选择对收入区域差异影响的分析表明,劳动力产业转移的收入效应单调递增,不同劳动力转移模式的收入效应各异,行业技术密集度的收入效应为正。缩小农村居民收入差距应发展县域经济,推动农村劳动力最大限度地向非农产业转移;细化劳动力市场,提高农村劳动力就业层次;拓展人力资本投资渠道,提升就业稳定性和收入水平:加大政府引导干预力度,完善农村劳动力就业的外部环境。     

中国社会保障支出与城乡居民收入差距关系的实证分析

文章首先分析了中国城乡收入差距现状,之后选取了城乡人均物质资本差距、城乡人力资本差距、城乡劳动力市场一体化程度和城乡社会保障差距四个影响城乡居民收入差距的影响因素进行实证分析。结果表明,城乡人均物质资本差距和城乡劳动力市场一体化程度对城乡居民收入差距有正向影响,城乡人力资本差距和城乡社会保障差距对城乡居民收入差距有负向影响。     

健康人力资本与性别工资差异

现有对性别工资差异的研究大多是基于教育、经验等人力资本对工资的影响进行分析而忽视了健康人力资本的作用。本文运用中国健康与营养调查数据,将健康人力资本引入工资决定模型,对我国劳动力市场上健康人力资本对工资的影响以及性别工资差异进行了实证分析。研究发现：健康人力资本是影响我国居民工资收入的重要因素;我国劳动力市场上存在明显的性别工资差异,女性工资显著低于男性;利用Oaxaca—Cotton的分解方法发现性别工资差异中大约只有20％可以被个体特征合理解释,余下的部分被认为是对女性的歧视和没能观测到的因素所致。健康人力资本对工资的边际贡献在性别之间的差异是性别工资差异的重要来源。     

Labor Market Reform, Income Inequality and Economic Growth in China

The year 1996 was a turning point both in terms of Chinese labor market reform aria m China＇s economic growth pattern. Before 1996, labor market reform was mainly implemented through adjustment of people＇s occupation and income structure. Since 1996, employment restructuring has led to differentiation in terms of employment status. Labor market reform in the former stage resulted in slow growth in wages, whereas reform in the latter stage enhanced economic efficiency. Both stages have enabled the Chinese economy to apply its comparative advantage of low labor cost. Labor market reform has also increased income disparity and, therefore, new challenges are posed in sustaining economic growth. China needs to adjust its development strategies and introduce labor market reform that can improve income equality, so as to achieve sustainable economic development.     

Long-Run Economic Performance and the Labor Market

This article uses a simple variation of the Solow model to study the interrelations between economic growth and the labor market. We show, both analytically and empirically, that income and capital per worker in the steady state depend positively on flexibility of the labor market; that the steady-state unemployment rate depends positively on the rate of population growth and the productivity growth rate and negatively on the savings rate and flexibility of the labor market; and, finally, that labor market flexibility affects convergence toward steady state.     

Social capital and poverty in Uganda

This paper investigates the links between social capital and household poverty in Uganda. It assumes a two-way causal relationship between poverty and access to social capital. This suggests an endogeneity problem, so the paper uses econometric techniques that control for endogeneity. Using two nationally representative datasets, the authors' analyses revealed that access to social capital defined in terms of membership of social organisations positively affects household income and reduces poverty. Education was the key determinant of income and increases the probability of joining social networks. Their results further show that household income and welfare are positively associated with access to social capital or group participation. This suggests that government strategies to increase household income that take into consideration existing social institutions will go a long way to encourage associational growth and performance and consequently reduce poverty.     

社会资本在减轻农村贫困中的作用：文献述评与研究展望

近年来,社会资本在减轻农村贫困中的作用逐渐成为发展经济学家关注的一个热点。本文分别从静态和动态两个视角综述了相关研究的思路和方法：从静态视角来看,信任对于减少绝对贫困有积极的作用,但某些形式的社会资本难以减轻绝对贫困,关于社会资本是否能减轻相对贫困则尚未取得一致的认识;从动态视角来看,社会资本通过非正式保险的机制平滑消费、减轻暂时贫困,通过促进融资和创业、保护产权、促进公共品提供和劳动力流动,有助于消除长期贫困。总的来看,随着市场化进程的深入,社会资本反贫困的积极作用有减弱的趋势。本文基于理论评述,提出了深化社会资本的减贫理论机制（尤其是对相对贫困的作用机制）、市场化进程中的社会资本反贫困机制、改进社会资本测量、加强因果效应识别等未来的研究方向。     

社会资本在减轻农村贫困中的作用：文献述评与研究展望

近年来,社会资本在减轻农村贫困中的作用逐渐成为发展经济学家关注的一个热点。本文分别从静态和动态两个视角综述了相关研究的思路和方法：从静态视角来看,信任对于减少绝对贫困有积极的作用,但某些形式的社会资本难以减轻绝对贫困,关于社会资本是否能减轻相对贫困则尚未取得一致的认识;从动态视角来看,社会资本通过非正式保险的机制平滑消费、减轻暂时贫困,通过促进融资和创业、保护产权、促进公共品提供和劳动力流动,有助于消除长期贫困。总的来看,随着市场化进程的深入,社会资本反贫困的积极作用有减弱的趋势。本文基于理论评述,提出了深化社会资本的减贫理论机制（尤其是对相对贫困的作用机制）、市场化进程中的社会资本反贫困机制、改进社会资本测量、加强因果效应识别等未来的研究方向。     

新农村建设中农村剩余劳动力转移就业的路径

农村剩余劳动力转移基于就业机会带来的收入增长,但目前面临的困境制约着转移大军就业机会的获得。农村剩余劳动力和就业机会之间的均衡应是工业化与第三产业的发展,包括大力建设新农村,发展农村现代化,而不是一味地向城市转移或者表面城镇化。当务之急是发展农村教育,提高农民素质,提高人力资本含量,增强就业机会的主动创造能力,实现农民从贫困落后向现代生活方式与观念转变的文明转型。     

贫困农户增收路径研究——基于农民收入差距分析

收入差距过大问题是我国当前经济生活中一个非常突出的问题。我国农村贫困发生率与贫富差距及农民收入水平具有高度的关联性。对农民收入差距状况的分析表明，形成贫困户和非贫困户收入差距过大的主要原因有两个，一是工资性收入，二是非农经营收入。围绕这两个方面，增加贫困户收入、缩小贫困户和非贫困户过大的收入差距的主要路径有：一是加大对人力资本的投资；二是积极有序地组织剩余劳动力转移；三是加快农村非农产业的发展；四是积极培育农村专业协作组织。     

Trade Integration with the European Union: Poverty Impacts in Ecuador

The government of Ecuador is seeking to negotiate a trade agreement with the European Union (EU). This study examines the impacts of such a trade agreement on rural and urban poverty in Ecuador by combining a household income and occupational choice model with a computable general equilibrium model. The results suggest that a trade agreement with the EU may have a significant impact on poverty. However, the nature and extent of the impact varies depending on the degree of initial tariff reduction, labor market considerations, and whether Ecuadorian bananas are granted better access to the EU market.     

行业收入差距的形成机理研究——以上海市为例

在对行业收入差距形成机理进行理论诠释和定性分析的基础上,应用计量经济学中的Panel data方法,对上海市行业收入差距的形成机理进行了实证检验。模型结果显示,行业劳动生产率的差异、行业垄断水平的差异对上海市行业收入差距的影响效力最大、最显著,而行业人力资本差异、行业发展水平差异的代表性指标未通过显著性检验。基于该实证结果,可以从提高全行业劳动生产率水平、缩小行业间劳动生产率差异,从打破行业垄断、为企业创造更具公平竞争性的市场环境两方面入手缩小上海市行业收入差距。