Determinants of Indonesian rural secondary school enrolment: gender,neighbourhood and school characteristics

In recent years the school enrolment rates of children aged 13–15 and 16–18 years have increased sharply in Indonesia, not only in urban but also in rural areas. Using various data sets spanning the years from 1993 to 2007, this paper investigates changes in factors associated with the enrolment of secondary school aged children in rural areas. It sheds light on the roles of gender and of neighbourhood and school characteristics, which have rarely been examined in the Indonesian context. The study finds that the disappearance of a gender gap in secondary enrolments between 1993 and 2007 contributed significantly to the rise in the overall enrolment rate. The findings also show that children living in wealthier communities and communities with a high proportion of enrolled children are more likely to attend school. Finally, various school characteristics are shown not to be strongly or consistently correlated with school enrolment.     

Does public expenditure management matter for education outcomes?

This paper examines the significance of public expenditure management for primary education outcomes in public schools in two South African provinces (Gauteng and North West). Using cross-sectional data from 175 public primary schools and 13 local education offices, the analysis finds that while misappropriation of education funds (leakages) is not strongly associated with poor education outcomes, delays on the part of the government in disbursing funds to schools are correlated with Grade 5 dropout rates. The paper finds no evidence that public expenditure and total resource wealth (including public and private contributions) are significantly associated with education outcomes. Increased spending on learning and teaching support materials is associated strongly with lower Grade 1 and Grade 7 repetition rates. The paper also finds that repetition rates are driven strongly by poverty indicators at the district level, while dropout rates are driven strongly by district and school inefficiency.     

Effects of male and female education on economic growth: Some evidence from Asia

We use extreme bounds analysis (EBA) to examine the comparative growth effects of gender disaggregated and level-specific enrolment ratios in a panel of Asian economies. To test our hypotheses, we employ both endogenous and exogenous growth frameworks. The externality effects of education are positive and robust for both males and females and are relatively large and significant at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. The results are suggestive of a gender productivity gap. Asian economies can grow faster by investing more in female education.     

Financial reform and credit extension in Lesotho

The study on which this article is based was concerned with establishing whether the lending behaviour of Lesotho's commercial banks in relation to the private sector has changed following the reforms that have been implemented since 1980. The influence of macroeconomic variables on agricultural credit and on private sector lending provided through the existing commercial banks during the period 1980 to 1993 was examined. The results showed a high and significant association between total credit extension and the general performance of the economy. Macroeconomic variables such as returns on financial securities in Lesotho and bonds in the Republic of South Africa, bank discount rates and the interest rates on saving deposits applicable in Lesotho had a key effect on the extension of credit by commercial banks to the private sector. The study concluded that credit extension activities in Lesotho during the study period were sensitive to the macroeconomic environment.     

Do education vouchers prevent dropout at private high schools? Evidence from Japanese policy changes

Although education voucher programs for students attending private high schools have existed in Japan for decades, to date there have been no studies that examine their effectiveness. In this study, we estimate the programs’ preventative effect on dropout by using school-track level (academic or vocational) panel data covering all high schools in northern Japan. Prefectural governments have faced increasing dropout rates stemming from financial difficulties, and expanded the scope and amount of their private high school tuition support programs since the late 1990s. We use this variation to identify the effect of tuition support on students’ dropout decisions, controlling for initial academic ability of students entering the schools and unobservable school-track effects. We also apply the instrumental variable method to account for the possible endogeneity of policy changes. Our results suggest that increasing tuition support is particularly effective in preventing the dropout of private high school students on nonacademic tracks.     

German stagnation versus Swedish progression: gender wage gaps in comparison, 1960–2006

This article provides a comparative analysis of the development of the gender wage gap in West Germany and Sweden during the period 1960–2006. Despite the economic similarities including broad social safety nets, the gap has developed differently since 1960. This analysis accounts for micro- and macroeconomic factors and politics and concludes that norms and traditions penetrate institutional settings and ensnare Germany in a cultural trap with regard to gender equality. While Sweden has moved to a two-earner model, German society expects mothers to stay at home. The micro analysis shows that family concerns (e.g. marriage and motherhood) decrease female income in Germany to a far greater extent than do such factors in Sweden, which can be explained in part by deeply held social attitudes.     

Une modélisation des déterminants des décisions de scolarisation primaire des ménages au Sénégal

Abstract: This study describes enrolment rates and constructs an econometric model for primary education demand in Senegal, relying on the results of the QUID survey realized in 2001. A sequential probit model is constructed to explain the different choices made by the households in relation to their children's education, namely: decision to enrol or not, choice of the type of school (public or private schools, if private, religious or secular schools), decision to allow the children to attain the last grade or not. A dozen of explanatory variables relating to children and households’ characteristics and availability of education supply, are retained in this model. Simulations based on the model estimation results show the discrimination endured by rural children compared to urban ones whatever their gender, and by girls relative to boys, in terms of the probability distribution of the dependant variable of the model.     

Gender and Student Achievement in English Schools

The widening gap between the average educational achievementof boys and girls has been the subject of much discussion. Thisgap is especially controversial for students taking nationalexams at the end of their compulsory education. However, thegender gap is also apparent at earlier and at later stages ofeducation. In this paper, we analyse changes over time in thegender achievement gap at the different stages of compulsoryeducation in English schools. We first use a combination ofdata sources to paint a picture of how gender gaps have evolvedover time and in what context they are most marked. Then weconsider possible explanations for the observed gender gaps.We look at the relevance of school inputs, teaching practice,and the examination system for explaining the gender gap. Wealso discuss the potential influence of wider social and economicchanges as reflected, for example, in the much higher educationlevels of mothers relative to those of previous generations.Analysis of this issue is important in the context of researchon the gender wage gap. However, it is also raises policy-relevantissues in relation to whether changes in the school system caneffect a change in the gender gap in educational achievement. Footnotes ¹ E-mail addresses: s.machin{at}ucl.ac.uk, s.mcnally1{at}lse.ac.uk     

Enrolment for degrees in agriculture and implications for agricultural development∗

The proportion of students who enrol for agricultural degrees at black universities??? is low, and only a few females enrol for these degrees. This has severe implications for agricultural development in the less developed areas. In order to increase enrolment for degrees in agriculture, it is suggested that improvements be made in the following: the society's image of agriculture, salaries of qualified agriculturalists, land tenure, vocational guidance at schools, quality of teaching of agriculture at schools, provision of bursaries and availability of jobs for agricultural graduates.     

Progress through school and the determinants of school dropout in South Africa

The release of the National Income Dynamics Study Wave 2 provides the first nationally representative longitudinal data collected in South Africa, making it possible to study transitions in and out of school, across grades and into work, in ways not previously possible. We illustrate the high levels of grade repetition evident in South African schools and show how school completion presents a significant hurdle with very few youth successfully matriculating. Exit from school does not offer any advantages as most youth find themselves idle once they have left school. Our regression analysis investigates correlates of school dropout and shows that falling behind is a key determinant of school dropout, even after controlling for school quality and socio-economic status. Those behind but attending higher quality schools are partially protected from dropping out. Some evidence that credit constraints may be related to dropout is found, especially among males.     

城市外来劳动力的性别收入差距与工资歧视———基于非条件分位数回归的分解方法

内容文章利用非条件分位数回归的分解方法对2011年城市外来劳动力群体的性别工资差距进行了分析.研究发现:(1)城市外来劳动力群体中,性别间受教育程度的差异已经变得不太显著,但在职业方面针对女性外来劳动力的“粘性地板”现象仍然十分突出.(2)人力资本禀赋和就业职业特征对男性与女性外来劳动力工资的影响程度有所不同,不同收入分位数上的影响系数也有明显的差异.(3)性别歧视是造成外来劳动力性别间收入差距的主要原因,而男性与女性劳动者工作经验的差距以及工作经验收益率的差异已经取代教育因素成为了性别收入差距中的突出问题     

Financial Incentives in Disability Insurance in the Netherlands

Summary In this article, we assess the impact of financial incentives on the inflow in the public Disability Insurance (DI) scheme in The Netherlands. For this matter, the variation in replacement rates over different sectors is exploited to estimate the probability of DI enrolment over a sample of employees from the Dutch Income Panel (1996–2000). On the basis of these administrative data, we find a point estimate of the elasticity of DI enrolment with respect to the DI wealth rate of 2.5. Simulations indicate that a 5%-point rise in replacement rates in the two first years of DI increases DI enrolment by 6%.     

Can public policies lower religiosity? Evidence from school choice in France, 1878–1902

This study analyses the effects of public policies on religiosity by focusing on the enrolment of pupils in French Catholic primary schools between 1878 and 1902. During this period, the government increased public spending and made school attendance free and mandatory until the age of 13. The empirical analysis presented here suggests that greater public spending had no substantial effect on the enrolment in Catholic schools. By contrast, mandatory schooling laws had a negative, but quantitatively limited, impact. The overall resilience of Catholic schooling is traced to the political divide created by the 1789 French Revolution.     

School Enrollment and Graduation Rates in Western China Based on the 2000 Census

This paper examines the 2000 Chinese Census data for educational enrollment and graduation of Western Chinese youth aged 10–18. Analysis is done on a regional, provincial, and individual level and comparisons are offered between Western and Eastern China. Comparisons are also made with the 1990 Census in order to explore changes over the decade of the 1990s. We find a substantial improvement in educational attainment rates for all groups and at all levels over the decade. School initiations are very high in every province. The aggregate gender gap has also narrowed significantly over this period. Individual level analysis shows that boys are still more likely to start school, graduate from primary school and start middle school. There is no significant gender gap when it comes to finishing middle school or starting high school.     

The Effect of High School JROTC on Student Achievement,Educational Attainment,and Enlistment

The Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC) is a high school initiative that serves many at‐risk students. Its goals range from reducing dropout rates and improving academic achievement to preparing students for military careers. Using data from High School and Beyond (HSB) and the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS), we estimate average treatment effects on students attending schools that typically host JROTC. Applying a two‐stage matching technique, we find that JROTC participants have poorer academic outcomes than other students; although, a large portion of these differences is explained by their at‐risk status. In addition, program effects appear to differ by demographic group, with black participants having lower dropout rates than white participants. The program also appears to improve self‐esteem scores of females. Although the majority of JROTC participants do not join the military, we find large marginal enlistment effects.     

生育政策、子女数量与中国的性别教育平等

近年来,中国性别教育差距快速缩小并呈现出女性高等教育在校生比重超越男性的现象,文章从生育政策视角对这一现象进行了解释,认为计划生育政策通过改善女性教育获得显著促进了性别教育平等。队列分析显示,生育政策之后的出生队列中女性相对教育水平明显提高,性别教育差距明显缩小。基于生育政策地区差异和出生队列差异构建的双差分模型分析发现,以农村二孩政策地区为参照组,严格的独生子女政策在提高女性相对受教育机会方面更为明显。但相对于二孩政策,一孩半政策在促进性别教育平等方面不存在显著差异,这可能由于在一孩半政策下独女户和双女户数量较少,家庭受性别偏好影响会将资源向男性倾斜,导致政策没有通过控制家庭规模提高女性相对教育获得机会。研究认为,随着中国放松生育政策,农村地区由一孩半政策过渡到二孩政策并不会对女性教育获得产生明显影响,应该关注生育政策调整对严格独生子女政策地区女性教育获得的影响。同时,随着性别教育差距逐步缩小,可以利用劳动力市场政策降低市场性别歧视,进一步提高女性地位并促进性别平等。     

Gender Inequality in Employment in Mozambique

We investigate the gender employment gap in the expanding non‐subsistence sector of the economy in Mozambique, a country still characterized by a large subsistence agricultural sector. We show evidence that the gender gap has widened over time and we identify two structural factors strongly associated with it. One factor is the still relatively lower level of female human capital, with less attained education, as well as literacy and Portuguese proficiency rates. The lower conditional employment probabilities of married women, as compared with men, is the other factor. These findings point at expanding women´s education and facilitating the access of married women to the emerging labour market as the most effective ways of achieving a more inclusive growth path that does not leave women behind.     

Immigration and the path dependence of education: the case of German‐speakers in São Paulo,Brazil (1840–1920)

This article studies the path dependence of human capital accumulation in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. It focuses on the impacts of German‐speaking immigrants on education through three channels: their share of the population in the nineteenth century, their on‐the‐job skills, and the schools they founded. Using a new dataset based on almanacs from 1873 and 1888, these effects are evaluated for the nineteenth, early twentieth, and early twenty‐first centuries. The article shows that the institutionalized demand for education of these immigrants, reflected by the establishment of schools, was their main contribution to the accumulation of human capital. The effect of German schools on educational levels required a period to mature and dissipated over time. Nevertheless, its influence was substantial at the beginning of the twentieth century, affecting enrolment levels in private and state schools, a result that suggests the existence of spillover and contagion effects. Moreover, current indicators for stocks and flows of human capital in São Paulo are strongly associated with their historical levels. At the same time, this path dependence is conditional on the type of school: while a positive persistence is found for the private system throughout the twentieth century, convergence occurred in state schools.     

Gender Differences in Schooling in Indonesia

Despite almost universal primary education in Indonesia, and increasing female educational participation, gender differences remain in access to Indonesian education. This paper attempts to measure and explain these differences at primary and secondary level in Indonesia's provinces between 1980 and 1985. It examines the relationship between provincial school enrolment ratios for males and females and four factors: school availability, formal sector employment, ‘drop-out’ patterns and marriage patterns. School availability is found to be a strong predictor of enrolment levels, and stronger for females than for males. Relationships between enrolment patterns and the other three factors appear less clear cut.