Productivity and efficiency at large and community banks in the US: A Bayesian true random effects stochastic distance frontier analysis

This paper compares the productivity and efficiency of large banks and community banks in the United States over the period 1997–2006. This comparison is performed by estimating a true random effects stochastic distance frontier model—a model that is capable of disentangling unobserved heterogeneity from inefficiency—within a Bayesian framework. We find that failure to consider unobserved heterogeneity results in a misleading ranking of banks and mismeasured technical efficiency, productivity growth, and returns to scale. Our results show that, compared with community banks, large banks have experienced much higher productivity growth and higher levels of returns to scale. Our estimates of total factor productivity growth show a clear downward trend for both large and community banks, and our decomposition of the output-distance-function-based Divisia productivity index indicates that technical change is the driving force behind this trend.     

Productivity and efficiency analysis of Shinkin banks: Evidence from bootstrap and Bayesian approaches

This paper analyzes the productivity and efficiency of Shinkin banks and the various prefectures in Japan, over the period from 2000 to 2006. We obtain estimates of efficiency growth and productivity growth, using the bootstrapped Malmquist index, and estimates of efficiency using the Bayesian distance frontier approach. We confirm that the efficiency growth and productivity growth of Shinkin banks did not improve significantly over the period of this study. In addition, we show that the efficiency of Shinkin banks is homogenous, with little variation across the banks analyzed. Methodologically, we also prove that a failure to impose theoretical regularity on the distance function could lead to false conclusions about the average efficiency or efficiency ranking of Shinkin banks. The study also includes an analysis of the correlates of productivity and efficiency growth, and provides efficiency and productivity estimates of the prefectures in which the banks are located.     

Efficiency and productivity growth in the banking industry of Central and Eastern Europe

We employ the directional technology distance function and provide estimates of bank efficiency and productivity change across Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries and across banks with different ownership status for the period 1998–2003. Our results demonstrate the strong links of competition and concentration with bank efficiency. They also show that productivity for the whole region initially declined but has improved more recently with further progress on institutional and structural reforms. Input-biased technical change has been consistently positive throughout the entire period suggesting that the reforms have induced favorable changes in relative input prices and input mix. However we find evidence of diverging trends in productivity growth patterns across banking industries and that foreign banks outperform domestic private and state-owned banks both in terms of efficiency and productivity gains. Overall, we find that productivity change in CEE is driven by technological change rather than efficiency change.     

The sources of bank productivity growth in China during 2002–2009: A disaggregation view

This study investigates the sources of bank productivity growth in China over the period 2002–2009. In order to perform this research, we propose an advanced index – input slack-based productivity index (ISP) – a model that disaggregates total factor productivity growth into each input productivity change. Funds, capital, and employees are chosen as the inputs, whereas loans and other earning assets are outputs in this study. Our results show that technological gains transcend the efficiency regressions and result in total factor productivity growth. More specifically, technical progress in capital productivity reveals the dominant force behind the total factor technical change and productivity improvement. In addition, this paper uses these disaggregation terms to find out the competitive advantages and disadvantages of input usages for each Chinese bank. These findings indicate that the ISP index provides more insights than traditional total factor productivity indices.     

Do Large Banks Have Lower Costs? New Estimates of Returns to Scale for U.S. Banks

This paper presents new, fully nonparametric estimates of ray‐scale and expansion‐path scale economies for U.S. banks based on a model of bank costs. Unlike prior studies that use models with restrictive parametric assumptions or limited samples, our methodology uses local polynomial estimators and data on all U.S. banks over the period 1984–2006. Our estimates indicate that as recently as 2006, most U.S. banks faced increasing returns to scale, suggesting that scale economies are a plausible (but not necessarily only) reason for the growth in average bank size and that the tendency toward increasing scale is likely to continue unless checked by government intervention.     

Efficiency and technical progress in banking Empirical results for a panel of German cooperative banks

Using 1989–1992 individual data of 757 German cooperative banks and applying the intermediation approach we specify a multi-product translog cost function for this part of the German banking industry. For all size classes moderate economies of scale can be identified. There is also evidence of economies of scope which supports the notion of universal banking. As for cost efficiency, we find that the average banks in all size classes deviate considerably from the best practice cost frontier. All banks enjoy growth of total factor productivity, which is higher for the smaller banks in the sample.     

中国银行业结构性全要素生产率增长研究

在深化银行业供给侧结构性改革背景下,如何科学评价银行业的结构性全要素生产率(TFP)增长具有重要意义。区别于早期针对个体样本的技术性TFP增长研究,本文通过构建并分解加总的Luenberger生产率指标对我国银行业以及不同类型银行的结构性TFP增长及来源进行有效评价。结果显示,研究期间,我国银行业的结构性TFP增长表现良好,其中,整体技术进步是主要驱动力;进一步分解发现,制度创新改善和加总的个体技术进步推动了银行业结构性TFP增长。在整体效率变化方面,加总的个体技术效率变化和结构效率变化都有待提高,其中,范围效率变化是抑制结构效率改善的主要因素。考虑不同类型银行,制度创新变化对所有类型银行的结构性TFP增长都影响显著,加总的个体技术变化对股份制和地区性银行的结构性TFP增长贡献更突出;加总的个体技术效率变化、结构效率变化、范围效率变化和规模效率变化对不同类型银行的结构性TFP增长作用有限。     

Turkish bank efficiency: Bayesian estimation with undesirable outputs

This paper analyzes the productivity and efficiency of Turkish banks from 2002 to 2010. We obtained estimates of efficiency, productivity growth and efficiency growth using a Bayesian stochastic frontier approach and focused on accounting for Non-Performing Loans (NPLs) for use in our model. Specifically, we introduce NPLs as a bad output in an input distance function, and estimate a system of non-linear equations subject to endogeneity. We confirm that the productivity growth of Turkish banks was positive over the period of this study, which was mainly due to the improvement in technology, while efficiency growth continued to be negative over the same period. Methodologically, we also prove that not accounting for NPLs in estimating the frontier model might seriously distort the efficiency and productivity results. The study also provides measures of shadow prices for NPL and discusses the results in terms of several interesting trends in Turkish banking. Finally, the paper provides efficiency and productivity comparisons between domestic and foreign banks.     

Differential impact of Korean banking system reforms on bank productivity

We study the impact of banking system reforms during a crisis following a period of undisciplined lending. Regulatory changes aimed at strengthening the banks’ capital structure and risk management practices do not have a uniform impact on bank productivity, but rather favor financially sound or strategically privileged banks. We present evidence documenting the differential impact of regulatory reforms on Korean commercial bank productivity over the period 1995–2005. Average technical efficiency of banks decreased during the financial crisis of 1997–1998. It improved following the subsequent bank restructuring and continued to improve through 2005. The capital adequacy ratio is positively associated with banks’ technical efficiency. The non-performing loans ratio is negatively associated with technical efficiency. Both relationships are accentuated during the crisis but attenuated after the reforms.     

Malmquist indices of productivity change in Australian financial services

In this study the nature and extent of efficiency and productivity growth in deposit-taking institutions is investigated using nonparametric frontier techniques. Employing Malmquist indices, productivity growth is decomposed into technical efficiency change and technological change for two hundred and sixty-nine Australian credit unions. The results indicate that most credit unions experienced technological progress after deregulation, and that any efficiency gain found was largely the result of improvements in technical efficiency rather than scale efficiency. That productivity growth which did occur due to an increase in efficiency over the period tended to be in credit unions with a small number of members and a large asset base, whilst technical progress was most pronounced in institutions with a relatively high proportion of residential and commercial loans.     

我国商业银行的效率现状及生产率变动分析

本文运用数据包络分析方法和Malmquist指数对我国28家三类商业银行2000～2004年的技术效率、纯技术效率和规模效率以及全要素生产率变动进行了测算。结果发现,三类商业性银行的效率存在差异:国有商业银行的规模效率最低,并且呈规模报酬递减;股份制商业银行效率略高于国有商业银行;城市商业银行效率由相对最低转为相对最高。总体上看,银行业全要素生产率呈上升趋势,技术效率呈下降趋势,规模效率无明显变化。本文的主要结论是:规模是影响国有商业银行和股份制商业银行效率差异的主要因素,银行全要素生产率的变动受信息技术发展的推动以及宏观环境的影响。     

Incorporating risk input into the analysis of bank productivity: Application to the Taiwanese banking industry

This study reappraises banks’ productivity by using 42 Taiwanese banks during 1999–2007 as observations. It introduces an input-oriented generalized metafrontier Malmquist productivity index (I-gMMPI), while considering the latent effect of risk-taking behavior in the analytic framework. We learn that public and private banks should face separate short-term technological frontiers, while the econometric model considering risk input can portray banks’ operating frontiers better. Moreover, neglecting the influence of risk input would bring about distortions of efficiency, technology and TFP dynamic estimations for banks; meanwhile, the degree of scale economies would also be overestimated. The paper concludes that neglecting the risk-taking essence in bank performance evaluation is equal to allowing banks to barter risk-bearing as the term for further output growth. Consequently, the potential cost is that banks may excessively aggrandize their scales of business, implying the possibility of another financial crisis.     

Too Big to Be Efficient? The Impact of Implicit Subsidies on Estimates of Scale Economies for Banks

We examine whether “too‐big‐to‐fail” (TBTF) factors affect estimates of scale economies for large banks. From a standard model of bank production that does not control for any TBTF factors, we find evidence of scale economies for our sample of large banks. We then control for TBTF factors by using a measure of the “implicit subsidy” that emerges from a reduction in TBTF banks’ funding costs due to investor expectations of government support. We do this in two ways: first, we estimate scale economies from an augmented model of bank production that employs a proxy for the counterfactual price of debt that banks would face in the absence of any TBTF funding cost advantage; second, we estimate scale economies from a model of bank production that is estimated only for a sample of banks considered unlikely to be TBTF. After controlling for TBTF factors using either method, we no longer find evidence of scale economies for our sample of large banks. These results suggest that estimated scale economies for large banks are affected by TBTF factors.     

Bank efficiency,productivity, and convergence in EU countries: a weighted Russell directional distance model

The objective of this study is three-fold. First we estimate and analyse bank efficiency and productivity changes in the EU28 countries with the application of a novel approach, a weighted Russell directional distance model. Second, we take a disaggregated approach and analyse the contribution of the individual bank inputs on bank efficiency and productivity growth. Third, we test for convergence in EU28 bank productivity as well as in the inefficiency of individual bank inputs. We find that bank efficiency has been undermined by the financial crisis in banks notably from the EU15 countries. We also argue that bank efficiency and productivity in EU countries vary across the banking sector with banks from the ‘old’ EU showing higher efficiency levels. Nonetheless, a noticeable catching up process is observed for banks from the ‘new’ EU countries. Consequently, we do not find evidence of group convergence for bank productivity but there is evidence of convergence in bank efficiency change and technical change among the EU28 countries throughout the period 2005–2014. The driving force seems to be convergent technical change from the old EU member states’ banks. On the other hand, almost no convergence is detected for the banks’ individual inputs while the transition paths show heightened diversity during the crisis years.     

An empirical study of bank efficiency in China after WTO accession

This paper documents the technical efficiency of Chinese banks over 1999–2010. With stochastic frontier analysis, we find that Chinese banks are about 18% more efficient in generating lending assets than profits. We also observe an upward trend of bank efficiency after China's entry to WTO in 2001. The improvement of bank efficiency is most prominent for the largest banks with substantial state ownership. We also find that majority state-owned banks are least efficient; well capitalized banks are less efficient; bank efficiency decreases with bank size at the lower end, but banks gain efficiency and realize economies of scale when bank size grows large enough; more fee-generating business reduces efficiency; better management improves efficiency.     

Flow versus stock indicators of banking output: Effects on productivity and scale economy measurement

Virtually all studies of bank cost efficiency have used stock measures of banking output. The effects on time-series estimates of total factor productivity and cross-sectional estimates of scale economies are contrasted using both stock (value of deposit and loan balances) and flow (number of deposit and loan transactions) measures. While productivity growth differs between these two output measures over the last 20 years, it is similar over the last decade, but in all cases is quite low. For scale economies, slightly U-shaped average costs are found, with the output stock measure giving the better fit.This research was performed while the author was at the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond; the opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the Board of Governors, the Reserve Banks, or their staffs. Comments by Allen Berger, Diana Hancock, and two anonymous referees have improved the article. Research assistance by Alex Wolman has been outstanding.     

The technical efficiency of large bank production

Significant difficulties in commercial banking in the late 1980s raise questions about bank performance and efficiency. With the use of data envelopment analysis (DEA), we consider the relative technical efficiency of 201 large banks from 1984 to 1990. Bank technical inefficiency averages just over 5 percent, much lower than found in existing estimates. Larger and more profitable banks have higher levels of technical efficiency. At the same time, however, larger banks are more likely to operate under decreasing returns to scale.     

基于DEA-BCC模型的城商行技术效率实证分析（2008-2012）

运用投入导向型的DEA-BCC 模型,对东部沿海10省市36家样本城商行2008-2012年的技术效率进行实证研究。研究表明,近五年来样本城商行总体技术效率保持平稳,并呈较为平坦的“V型”变化趋势,样本城商行的技术效率并没有在规模持续扩张的背景下得到持续有效提升。进一步对技术效率的分解项目进行分析发现,纯技术效率是制约样本城商行总体技术效率提升的主导因素,表明,样本城商行的内部管理能力亟待提升。此外,无论是总技术效率、纯技术效率还是规模效率,都与样本城商行的规模具有显著的相关性,总体而言,大型城商行的技术效率及纯技术效率要优于中小型城商行,但是,中型城商行在规模效率方面略胜一筹,样本城商行存在较为明显的“倒V型”成本曲线。     

Productivity growth and biased technological change: Credit banks in Japan

This paper investigates the productivity change of Japanese credit banks with a Malmquist index and the input technological bias during 2000–2006. Our results indicate that the traditional growth accounting method, which assumes Hicks neutral technological change, is not appropriate for analyzing changes in productivity. Our analysis unambiguously shows that management of Shinkin banks has to be improved. These must be based on the improvement of technical efficiency and/or technological change, emulating the procedures of the best-practice banks, i.e., those banks with Malmquist productivity scores higher than one and simultaneously with technical efficiency and technological change higher than one.     

我国主要商业银行全要素生产率测算及其收敛性分析

本文通过对我国11家主要商业银行2004-2009年全要素生产率的测算,分析了其全要素生产率的变化趋势以及各银行全要素生产率差异的收敛性.实证结果表明:从长期来看,11家银行的整体全要素生产率有提高的趋势,其中,效率变化对全要素生产率进步的贡献有限,全要素生产率的提高主要通过技术进步实现;从长期看,各行全要素生产率的差异逐渐缩小,呈现出收敛趋势,显示出全要素生产率的趋同,与我国银行业的同质化特征相符.但从短期来看,各年度全要素生产率差异呈现收敛与发散交替变化的特征,反映了环境变化对银行效率的影响及各银行对环境的应变能力.