The Interrelation between Audit Quality and Managerial Reporting Choices and Its Effects on Financial Reporting Quality

Two distinct lines of research have been dedicated to empirically testing how financial reporting quality (measured as the earnings response coefficient or ERC) is associated with management's choice of reporting bias and with audit quality. However, researchers have yet to consider how ERCs are affected by either the auditor's reaction to changes in the manager's reporting bias or the manager's reaction to changes in audit quality. Our study provides theoretical guidance on these interrelations and how changes in the manager's or the auditor's incentives affect both reporting bias and audit quality. Specifically, when the manager's cost (benefit) of reporting bias increases (decreases), we find that expected bias decreases, inducing the auditor to react by reducing audit quality. Because we also find that the association between expected audit quality and ERCs is always positive, changes in managerial incentives for biased reporting lead to a positive association between ERCs and expected reporting bias. When the cost of auditing decreases or the cost of auditor liability increases, we find that expected audit quality increases, inducing the manager to react by decreasing reporting bias. In this case, changes in the costs of audit quality lead to a negative association between ERCs and expected reporting bias. Finally, we demonstrate the impact of our theoretical findings by focusing on the empirical observations documented in the extant literature on managerial ownership and accounting expertise on the audit committee. In light of our framework, we provide new interpretations of these empirical observations and new predictions for future research.     

Two Models of the Auditor - Client Interaction: Tests with United Kingdom Data*

Abstract. Accounting research contains two distinct approaches to the interaction between accounting management and the independent auditor. Game theory suggests that the auditor's testing strategy will affect the manager's reporting strategy and that the two strategies form an equilibrium. The game-theoretic approach views the auditor as active, in that the auditor acknowledges the effect that his or her testing strategy has on the manager's reporting. In contrast, in the decision-theoretic approach, the auditor tests reports, but ignores the effect that such testing might have on the manager's reporting behavior. Essentially, the decision-theoretic approach views the auditor as passive, taking the reporting strategy as given when designing tests. We use United Kingdom data to estimate both models and test their validity using nested hypothesis tests. Our results demonstrate that the active, game-theoretic model better describes the auditor-manager interaction. This is the first empirical validation of the game-theoretic model using archival accounting data.     

Asymmetric Learning from Prices and Post‐Earnings‐Announcement Drift

Motivated by research in psychology and experimental economics, we assume that investors update their beliefs about an asset's value upon observing the price, but only when the price clearly reveals that others obtained private information that differs from their own private information. Specifically, we assume that investors learn from the price of an asset in an asymmetric manner—they learn from the price if they observe good (bad) private information and the price is worse (better) than what is justified based on public information alone. We show that asymmetric learning from an asset's price leads to post‐earnings‐announcement drift (PEAD), and that it generates arbitrage opportunities that are less attractive than alternative explanations of PEAD. In addition, our model predicts that PEAD will be concentrated in earnings surprises that are not dominated by accruals, and it also predicts that earnings response coefficients will decline in the magnitude of the earnings surprises.     

The Effect of Information Systems on Honesty in Managerial Reporting: A Behavioral Perspective*

This study examines the behavioral impact of an information system, and how that impact varies with the information system's precision, in an internal reporting environment. We propose that a manager's reporting decisions are affected by his or her trade‐off of the benefits of appearing honest against the benefits of misrepresentation. The information system affects the manager's trade‐off by improving the owner's ability to make an inference regarding the manager's level of honesty. Thus, to the extent that the manager perceives benefits to appearing honest, the presence of an information system can increase managerial honesty. As the information system becomes more precise, however, the manager must forgo greater benefits of misrepresentation in order to achieve the same appearance of honesty. For managers under a precise system, this will shift the trade‐off decision toward the benefits of misrepresentation and away from the benefits of appearing honest. Notably, in our experiment, the only benefit of appearing honest is an intrinsically motivated desire for social approval. We find that, although the existence of an information system increases managerial honesty, honesty is lower under a precise than under a coarse information system. We also compare profit earned by the owners in our experiment, which relies on a behavioral role of an information system, with the maximum profit theoretically possible given a contractual use of the information system. This comparison suggests that, unless the available information system is sufficiently precise, the owner will obtain greater profits by not contracting on its output, even if that output is fully contractible.     

Forecast Accuracy and Consistent Preferences for the Timing of Information Arrival

We study a principal's choice of whether to produce an imperfect forecast about a firm's outcome either before or after an agent's effort choice. The early forecast affects the agent's effort choice, which means the forecast can also be used to infer information about the effect of the agent's effort on outcome. The late forecast is more accurate because, by working hard, the agent also learns about productivity, implying that the late forecast has an additional performance measurement role. With verifiable information, the principal prefers a late forecast when the agent's effect on the accuracy of the forecast is either large or small. The agent has consistent preferences when the agent's effect on the accuracy of the late forecast is not too large. With unverifiable information, the agent's information rents imply that the principal cannot use either forecast as a performance measure. Thus, the accuracy of the late forecast has no effect on the principal's preference. However, if the accuracy of the early forecast is low and its decision‐making function is diminished, the principal prefers a late signal.     

The valuation significance of exit values: A contingent-claim analysis*

Abstract. The owner of an asset can abandon its use for resale value provided that a secondary market exists for the asset. The abandonment alternative adds a standby value to the asset. This paper studies the implications of the abandonment alternative for asset valuation. The basic idea is that a real asset can be likened to a call option on the larger of the asset's use value or its exit value. It is shown that a real asset can be valued as the sum of its discounted operating cash flows (or savings) and a put option on the operating cash flows, with an exercise price equal to the asset's exit value. This makes asset exit values relevant to the valuation of the firm's assets and liabilities. The valuation relevance of exit values in four settings, loan guarantees, mergers, spinoffs, and asset substitutions, is illustrated. Résumé. Le propriétaire d'un bien peut en céder l'utilisation en contrepartie de sa valeur de revente, à condition qu'il existe un marché secondaire pour le bien en question. Cette possibilité de cession ajoute au bien une valeur d'usage. L'auteur étudie les conséquences de cette possibilité de cession sur l'evaluation du bien. Fondamentalement, un bien réel peut être assimilé à une option d'achat sur la plus élevée de deux valeurs: la valeur d'usage du bien ou sa valeur de sortie. L'auteur démontre qu'un bien réel peut être évalué comme étant la somme des flux monétaires (ou des économies) actualisés tirés de son exploitation et d'une option de vente sur les flux monétaires tirés de l'exploitation, avec un prix de levée égal à la valeur de sortie du bien. Ainsi les valeurs de sortie des biens sont-elles pertinentes à l'evaluation des éléments d'actif et de passif de l'entreprise. Cette pertinence des valeurs de sortie est illustrée dans quatre cas: les garanties d'emprunt, les fusions, les dédoublements et les substitutions de biens.     

The Commitment to Income-Decreasing Accounting Choices as a Credible Signal to Reducing Information Asymmetry: The Case of Asset Revaluations*

Bagnoli and Watts (2005) proposed that a manager could reduce information asymmetry by choosing an income-decreasing accounting choice that signals the firm's relatively good future prospects. A limitation in testing this theory is that most income-decreasing accounting choices over time reverse such that aggregated earnings would be the same, regardless of the choice. One income-decreasing accounting choice that never reverses is the choice of upward asset revaluation, where the resulting gains are recognized through other comprehensive income and reduce future earnings by increasing future depreciation expense. In the United Kingdom, prior to FRS15, firms had the option to upwardly revalue on a one-time basis. FRS15, and subsequently International Financial Reporting Standards, however, require those firms that upwardly revalue precommit to revalue on a consistent basis. This precommitment sacrifices future reporting discretion, which, according to the aforementioned study, serves as a costly signal of a firm's relatively good future prospects that reduces information asymmetry. The choice not to upwardly revalue, therefore, serves as a signal of a firm's relatively poor future prospects and also reduces information asymmetry, but this choice does not require precommitment such that the reduction in information asymmetry would be less than the choice to precommit to upward revaluations. Using a propensity-score matched-pair design on a sample of United Kingdom firms to test our predictions during the period requiring precommitment, we find lower forecast dispersion, lower return volatility, and a lower cost of capital for firms that precommit to upward asset revaluations, relative to those firms that choose not to upwardly revalue their operating assets. Keywords: upward asset revaluations, income-decreasing accounting choice, information asymmetry, precommitment     

Express Yourself: Why Managers' Disclosure Tone Varies Across Time and What Investors Learn from It

We argue that volatility in a manager's disclosure tone across time should be a function of two components: (i) the firm's innate operating risk and (ii) the extent to which the manager's disclosure transparently reflects that risk. Consistent with this argument, we find that both operating risk and disclosure transparency are important determinants of disclosure tone volatility. We then examine whether investors incorporate the incremental information provided by disclosure tone volatility into their assessments of firm risk. If disclosure tone volatility primarily provides investors with incremental information about a firm's operating risk, we should find a positive association between tone volatility and market-based assessments of risk. On the other hand, if disclosure tone volatility primarily provides investors with incremental information about a manager's disclosure transparency, we should find a negative association between tone volatility and market-based assessments of risk. Consistent with an operating risk explanation, we find a positive association between disclosure tone volatility and market-based assessments of firm risk after controlling for a comprehensive set of proxies for operating risk and transparency. We find little support for an information risk explanation, even when we examine multiple measures specifically designed to capture information risk. Taken together, our results suggest that although disclosure tone volatility is a function of both a firm's operating risk and a manager's disclosure transparency, investors appear to respond as if disclosure tone volatility only provides incremental information about a firm's operating risk.     

Accounting Discretion and Managerial Conservatism: An Intertemporal Analysis*

Accounting discretion and the principle of conservatism are two salient features embedded in financial reporting systems. Arguably, the practice of conservative accounting choices can never be well understood without incorporating their effect on future periods (the intertemporal effect). This paper provides one explanation for managerial conservatism in a two‐period agency model with hidden information (a binary project type) and hidden actions (the agent's efforts). A piece‐wise linear incentive scheme with accounting earnings as the performance measure is employed. The agent's discretion is the choice of a depreciation method. Discretion is valuable if and only if the agent's marginal productivity of a “bad” project is greater than that of a “good” project, but not to an extreme degree. A conservative depreciation method decreases current compensation in exchange for a “bet” on future compensation and, hence, serves as a commitment device for the agent to signal that the prospect is indeed good. The accounting mechanism replicates the performance of the optimal direct mechanism.     

Firm-specific information and efficient resource allocation*

Abstract. This paper analyzes the decision-facilitating role of external accounting reports in large capital markets in which managers are costlessly motivated to act in the best interests of investors. Given homogeneous beliefs, time-additive preferences, and a sufficient variety of tradeable claims, external accounting reports are shown to provide a basis for Pareto improvements (relative to merely reporting dividends) only if those reports provide a means of making better production decisions. In a large economy, with both economy-wide and firm-specific risks, such improvements are shown to occur if the reports reveal events that affect the future productivity of the economy or individual firms or events that will result in economy-wide windfall gains or losses. However, reports that reveal future firm-specific windfall gains or losses have no value, even though they would affect market prices. Furthermore, while resources will be allocated more efficiently if managers have information about the productivity of their firms, the economy can achieve those efficiency gains without reporting firm-specific productivity information to investors, provided that investors hold well-diversified investment portfolios and are aware of each manager's information structure and decision criterion (which is to maximize the “full information” value of their firms). Résumé. Les auteurs analysent le rôle des rapports comptables externes, lorsqu'il s'agit de faciliter la décision, dans les marchés de capitaux importants dans lesquels les gestionnaires sont motivés à agir dans les meilleurs intérêts des investisseurs, sans que cela n'occasionne de coûts. Etant donné l'homogénéité des convictions, le renforcement des préférences dans le temps et une variété suffisante de créances négociables, il appert que les rapports comptables externes peuvent servir de base aux améliorations au sens de Pareto (relatives à la simple divulgation des dividendes) seulement si ces rapports permettent de prendre de meilleures décisions de production. Dans une grande économie, qui présente des risques tant à l'échelle de l'économie dans son ensemble qu'à l'échelle des entreprises particulières, ces améliorations semblent se produire si les rapports révèlent des événements qui touchent la productivité future de l'économie ou des entreprises particulières ou des événements qui donneront lieu à des gains ou à des pertes à l'échelle de l'économie. Toutefois, les rapports qui révèlent des gains ou des pertes éventuels particuliers à une entreprise n'ont pas de valeur, même s'ils sont susceptibles d'influer sur les prix du marché. En outre, bien que les ressources puissent être réparties de façon plus efficiente si les gestionnaires possèdent de l'information au sujet de la productivité de leur entreprise, l'économie peut réaliser ces gains d'efficience sans faire état aux investisseurs de l'information relative à la productivité particulière à l'entreprise, à condition que les investisseurs détiennent des portefeuilles de placements bien diversifiés et qu'ils soient au fait de la structure d'information et du critère de décision de chaque gestionnaire (qui consiste à maximiser la valeur de «l'information complète» relative à leur entreprise).     

On Monetary Analysis of Derivatives

Financial derivatives are products whose price is linked with that of an underlying asset. The relationship between these two prices has been studied in depth, and the following conclusions have been reached: (1) the volatility of underlying asset's price decreases after the introduction of derivatives, (2) the price discovery effect improves, (3) the liquidity of the underlying asset's market increases, (4) the bid-ask spread decreases together, and (5) the noise component of prices decreases. Those results are microeconomic and are not coherent with a macroeconomic analysis of derivatives. Derivatives tend to change the effectiveness of monetary policy actions by modifying the instruments that can be used. Derivatives have a monetary nature that has not been yet recognized by central banks and international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund and the Bank for International Settlements. This monetary nature can be evident by testing the relationship between derivatives and the interest rate. The consciousness of the monetary nature of derivatives would impose the quantification of transactions at least by the institutions that hold them, such as banks and other financial operators, and consequently by national authorities.     

Equilibrium Earnings Management,Incentive Contracts,and Accounting Standards*

In this paper, we model earnings management as a consequence of the interaction among self‐interested economic agents ‐ namely, the managers, the shareholders, and the regulators. In our model, a manager controls a stochastic production technology and makes periodic accounting reports about his or her performance; an owner chooses a compensation contract to induce desirable managerial inputs and reporting choices by the manager; and a regulatory body selects and enforces accounting standards to achieve certain social objectives. We show that various economic trade‐offs give rise to endogenous earnings management. Specifically, the owner may reduce agency costs by designing a compensation contract that tolerates some earnings management because such a contract allocates the compensation risk more efficiently. The earnings‐management activity produces accounting reports that deviate from those prescribed by accounting standards. Given such reports, the valuation of the firm may be nonlinear and s‐shaped, thereby recognizing the manager's reporting incentives. We also explore policy implications, noting that (1) the regulator may find enforcing a zero‐tolerance policy ‐ no earnings management allowed ‐ economically undesirable; and (2) when selecting the optimal accounting standard, valuation concerns may conflict with stewardship concerns. We conclude that earnings management is better understood in a strategic context that involves various economic trade‐offs.     

Communication in Multiperiod Agencies with Production and Financial Decisions*

Abstract. This paper examines a two-consumption date principal/agent model in which the manager receives private information at the first date. After observing his private information, the manager (agent) selects both the capital and personal effort he will invest in production. Operating cash flows are realized at both dates and any uninvested funds at the initial date are either paid out as a dividend to the equityholders (principal) or invested in zero net present value investments that require no effort. The aggregate cash flow at the second date is paid out as a dividend to the equityholders. The compensation contract specifies the manager's compensation as a function of the information available at the two dates. The key issue is whether it is valuable to have the contract based on the agent's communication of his private information. As in a single-consumption date model, communication may permit the implementation of more efficient incentives with respect to the manager's action choices. In addition, communication can facilitate the smoothing of the manager's consumption over the two dates. Direct communication can have positive value, but the analysis identifies a number of factors that can result in communication having no value. These factors include no direct preference for effort, public reporting of the private information at the second date, access to personal investments, and access to a dividend policy that will costlessly convey the private information through first-date dividends. Although access to personal investments may make communication redundant (since it is an alternative means of smoothing consumption), the analysis identifies conditions under which the equityholders would prefer to use communication and restrict the manager's access to personal investments (since it can have a negative effect on incentives). Résumé. Les auteurs examinent un modèle mandant-mandataire à deux dates de consommation dans lequel le gestionnaire reçoit de l'information privilégiée à la première des deux dates. Après avoir observé l'information privilégiée, le gestionnaire (c'est-à-dire le mandataire) sélectionne le capital et l'effort personnel qu'il investira dans la production. Les flux monétaires provenant de l'exploitation sont réalisés aux deux dates, et tous les fonds qui ne sont pas investis à la date initiale sont soit versés sous forme de dividendes aus. actionnaires (c'est-à-dire les mandants), soit investis dans des placements à valeur actualisée nette nulle et qui n'exigent aucun effort. Les flux monétaires totaux à la seconde date sont versés sous forme de dividendes aux actionnaires. Selon le contrat de rémunération, la rétribution des gestionnaires est fonction de l'information disponible aux deux dates. Le principal problème consiste à déterminer si le fait de baser le contrat sur la communication par le mandataire de l'information privilégiée dont il dispose présente un intérêt. Comme dans un modèle à une seule date de consommation, la communication peut permettre la mise en place de stimulants plus efficients en ce qui a trait au choix du gestionnaire concernant son plan d'action. En outre, la communication peut faciliter le nivellement de la consommation du gestionnaire entre les deux dates. La communication directe peut avoir une valeur positive, mais l'analyse permet de cerner plusieurs facteurs qui peuvent retirer toute valeur à une communication. Au nombre de ces facteurs figurent: l'absence de préférence directe pour l'effort, la communication publique de l'information privilégiée à la seconde date, l'accès aux placements personnels et l'accès à une politique de dividendes qui livrera sans frais l'information privilégiée par le truchement du versement de dividendes de la première date. Bien que l'accès aux placement personnels puisse rendre la communication redondante (puisqu'il s'agit d'un moyen de rechange de niveler la consommation), les auteurs définissent les conditions dans lesquelles les actionnaires préféreraient utiliser la communication et restreindre l'accès du gestionnaire aux placements personnels (puisqu'ils peuvent avoir un effet négatif sur les stimulants).     

市场估值会影响企业技术创新吗？——基于管理者短视视角的研究

文章从管理者“短视”角度研究市场估值对技术创新的影响机制,并在此基础上进一步研究管理者持股以及管理者任期的情境效应。以2006-2014年深圳A股制造业企业为研究对象的面板数据实证研究发现,企业的市场估值越高,则技术创新越多;管理者持股增强市场估值与技术创新之间的正向关系;管理者既有任期越长,管理者持股对市场估值与技术创新关系的正向作用越强,管理者预期任期越长,管理者持股对市场估值与技术创新关系的正向作用也越强。     

Voluntary Reporting Incentives and Reporting Quality: Evidence from A Reporting Regime Change for Private Firms in Taiwan

This paper examines the effect of voluntary financial reporting on firms' reporting quality using a reporting regime change in Taiwan. Before 2001, Taiwan's Company Act imposed a mandatory public reporting requirement of filing audited financial statements on private firms with contributed capital exceeding a certain threshold. This requirement was rescinded in 2001 and private firms since have had discretion over public financial reporting. We divide private firms retroactively into two groups: voluntary reporting firms, those continuing the practice of filing financial statements after the regime change; and nonvoluntary reporting firms, those discontinuing the reporting practice after the regime change. We find that financial reporting quality is higher for voluntary reporting firms than for nonvoluntary reporting firms and that this quality difference translates into a lower cost of debt for voluntary reporting firms. Our results support the view that reporting incentives play an important role in determining reporting quality.     

Cherry Picking,Disclosure Quality,and Comprehensive Income Reporting Choices: The Case of Property‐Liability Insurers*

Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 130: Reporting Comprehensive Income encourages enterprises to report comprehensive income on a performance statement rather than on a statement of equity. We investigate the reporting decisions of 82 publicly traded property‐liability insurers that are fairly evenly split in their choice. Our results demonstrate that insurers with a tendency to manage earnings through realized securities' gains and losses (that is, cherry pickers), as well as insurers with a reputation for poor disclosure quality, are more likely to report comprehensive income in a statement of equity. Apparently, these insurers face the highest cost of transparency. We do not find a relation between the reporting decision and the volatility of comprehensive income relative to the volatility of net income. Our findings that insurers' comprehensive income reporting choices are a reflection of their proclivity toward cherry picking as well as their level of disclosure quality should be of interest to standard‐setters because of the controversy over standard‐setters' preference for mandating all firms to report comprehensive income in a performance statement.     

Fritz Schmidt (1882–1950) and his pioneering work of current value accounting in comparison to Edwards and Bell's theory*

Abstract. One of the tasks of this paper is to draw attention to Fritz Schmidt and his pioneering work in current value accounting which anticipated essential features of both Edwards and Bell's (1961) work by 40 years, and the current cost legislations and standards of the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada by roughly six decades. Above all, I am trying to relate Schmidt's work to that of Edwards and Bell, thereby clarifying some misunderstandings that still surround this relationship. Schmidt needs a champion on the North American continent, and I have tried to assume this often misunderstood task. By direct reference to and translations from Schmidt's magnum opus, I attempt to demonstrate that Schmidt's theory possesses the following qualities:

• 1 It distinguishes clearly between general purchasing power adjustments and current value adjustments.
• 2 It does eliminate realized holding gains (cost savings) from the operating section, and presents an income concept equivalent to the “Current Operating Profit” of Edwards and Bell.
• 3 It clearly separates operating gains from holding gains (though rarely endeavors to separate real from fictional holding gains, since it favors the physical capital maintenance basis of income measurement).
• 4 It applies current costs also to manufacturing operations.
• 5 It does not fail to deal with the current costs of other inputs, and generally abandons the historical cost basis.

Résumé. Un des objectifs de cet article, est de faire ressortir le travail de pionier de Fritz Schmidt sur la comptabilité à la valeur actuelle qui anticipa les caractéristiques essentielles des travaux de Edwards et Bell (1961) de 40 ans et les lois et normes sur le coût actuel du Royaume-Uni, des Etats-Unis et du Canada d'approximativement six décades. Avant tout, j'essaie de relier les travaux de Schmidt à ceux de Edwards et Bell, afin de clarifier certaines méprises qui existent toujours relatives à cette relation. Schmidt a besoin d'un champion sur le continent nord américain et j'ai essayé d'assumer cette tâche souvent mal comprise. En me référant aux travaux de Schmidt et à certaines traductions, j'essaie de démontrer que la théorie de Schmidt possède les qualités suivantes:

• 1 Elle distingue clairement les ajustements du pouvoir général d'achat des ajustements de la valeur actuelle.
• 2 Elle élimine les gains de détention réalisés (économies de coûts) de la section exploitation et présente un concept de revenu équivalent au “Bénéfice hors postes non courants” de Edwards et Bell.
• 3 Elle sépare clairement les gains d'exploitation des gains de détention (quoiqu'elle ne s'efforce pas de séparer les gains de détention réels des fictifs, puisqu'elle favorise la base de la préservation de la capacité de production pour mesurer le revenu).
• 4 Elle utilise les coûts actuels aussi pour les exploitations manufacturières.
• 5 Elle n'oublie pas de traiter des coûts actuels des autres intrants et abandonne de façon générale la base du coût historique.

     

Shall the Northern Optimal R&D Subsidy Rate Inversely Respond to Southern Intellectual Property Protection?

Empirical studies have found that decentralized economies typically underinvest in research and development (R&D). This paper shows that to promote R&D investment, the innovating North's optimal subsidy rate may not necessarily fall in response to the imitating South's strengthening intellectual property protection (IPP), depending on the elasticity of demand for innovative goods. As numerical simulations indicate, if the demand is less elastic, a tightening of Southern IPP (increase in patent life) tends to allow the self-interested North a smaller optimal subsidy rate. Yet, this relation is overturned if the demand is elastic enough. I also find that worldwide welfare maximization requires a regime of Southern IPP that is neither as stringent as the North favors nor as lax as the South prefers.