Confidentiality decisions: The reasoning process of CPAS in resolving ethical dilemmas

As in other professions, such as law and medicine, accounting has a Code of Professional Conduct (Code) that members are expected to abide by. In today's legalistic society, however, the question of “what is the right thing to do,” is often confused with “what is legal?” In many instances, this may present a conflict between adhering to the Code and doing what some may perceive as proper ethical behavior. This paper examines (1) the reasoning process that CPAs use in resolving ethical issues related to confidentiality; and, (2) whether or not there is a perceived conflict in adhering to the Code and the moral values of some CPAs. The results indicate that although most CPAs sampled resolve ethical issues in accordance with the Code, such decisions do not always reflect their belief of what is morally right. Although the results are useful in understanding how some CPAs reason in making moral choices involving confidentiality decisions, care should be exercised in drawing further inferences from this study due to the limited sample size.     

A reexamination of the Internal Auditors' Code of Ethics

This study empirically examined the views of Certified Internal Auditors (CIAs) concerning the role of Code of Ethics for members of the Institute of Internal Auditors. It is a continuation of an earlier study which examined the usefulness of the Code to CIAs. Among the questions asked were what is the primary reason for the Code of Ethics, how useful is it, have you used it, should more enforcement actions be taken against members who violate the Code, and what are the legal and moral responsibilities of the CIA to report serious ethical violations, e.g., environmental pollution, to outsiders when top management and the board of directors are aware of the matter but are not doing anything to correct it. The results indicate strong support for the Code, its enforcement, and use as an instrument to encourage the internal flow of ethical behavior by embers and others.Philip H. Siegel is currently the Fiesta Mart Professor of Accounting at the University of Houston-Downtown. Formerly the Coopers & Lybrand Professor at San Francisco State University, Dr. Siegel received his Ph.D. in 1985. He holds CPA certification in Florida.John O'Shaughnessy is Associate Professor at San Francisco State University. Currently the Director of the Internal Audit Program at SFSU, Dr. O'Shaughnessy received his Ph.D. in 1990. He holds CPA and CIA certification.John T. Rigsby is Associate Professor at Mississippi State University. Author of numerous papers published in leading academic journals, Dr. Rigsby received his Ph.D. in 1986. He holds CPA certification.     

An Analysis of International Accounting Codes of Conduct

The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) has recently issued a revised “Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants” (IFAC Code). As a requirement for membership in IFAC, a national accounting organization must either adopt the IFAC Code or adopt a code of conduct that is not “less stringent” than the IFAC Code. In this paper, we examine the extent to which 158 national accounting organizations have adopted the revised IFAC Code as their own. Our results indicate that 80 of our sample organizations have adopted the IFAC Code (sometimes with minor modifications), while the remaining 78 opted not to utilize the model IFAC Code. We then test the hypothesis that national accounting organizations in lower income economies would be less likely to adopt the IFAC Code than those in high income economies. Our results do not support the hypothesis. We argue that one potential reason for such a finding is that adopting the IFAC Code may be a cost effective means of adopting a code of ethics for organizations in lower income economies.     

FOCUS: Ethics in the Accountancy Profession in Ireland

Accountants confronted with ethical dilemmas are expected to comply with their ethical guide or seek advice from their professional body. This study of Chartered Accountants in Ireland records their views on the usefulness of a Code of Ethics, the efficacy of their professional Institute and the need for ethics courses in Continuing Professional Development. Peter Clarke is a lecturer in the Department of Accountancy, University College Dublin, Dublin 4; Nancy Hill and Kevin Stevens are members of the School of Accountancy, DePaul University, Chicago.     

Influencing Ethical Development: Exposing Students to the AICPA Code of Conduct

Although the AICPA Code of Professional Conduct emphasizes the importance of education in ethics, very little is known about how and when the Code and the topic of ethics can be presented to enhance the effectiveness of ethics-oriented education. The purpose of this research was to provide preliminary evidence about the ethical development of students prior to, and immediately following, such courses. We found that: (1) accounting students, after taking an auditing course which emphasized the AICPA Code, reasoned at higher levels than students who had not taken the course; (2) there were no differences in moral reasoning levels when accounting and non-accounting majors were compared prior to an auditing course; and (3) there was a significant relationship between the Seniors' levels of ethical development and the choice of an ethical versus unethical action. It was concluded that an auditing course emphasizing the 'spirit' of the Code can have a positive impact on the ethical behaviour of some of the future members of the accounting profession.     

Knobe,Side Effects,and the Morally Good Business

The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) has recently issued a revised “Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants” (IFAC Code). As a requirement for membership in IFAC, a national accounting organization must either adopt the IFAC Code or adopt a code of conduct that is not “less stringent” than the IFAC Code. In this paper, we examine the extent to which 158 national accounting organizations have adopted the revised IFAC Code as their own. Our results indicate that 80 of our sample organizations have adopted the IFAC Code (sometimes with minor modifications), while the remaining 78 opted not to utilize the model IFAC Code. We then test the hypothesis that national accounting organizations in lower income economies would be less likely to adopt the IFAC Code than those in high income economies. Our results do not support the hypothesis. We argue that one potential reason for such a finding is that adopting the IFAC Code may be a cost effective means of adopting a code of ethics for organizations in lower income economies.     

Donor Funding of Multilateral Aid Agencies: Determining Factors and Revealed Burden Sharing

This paper reports an empirical study of the factors affecting burden sharing among OECD's 22 DAC members in ‘bankrolling’ the multilateral aid agencies. Annual data over 1970–2000, pooled across the donor countries, form the basis for the empirical estimation of each donor's share in the ODA aid receipts for each multilateral agency. Our findings suggest the existence of reverse exploitation, i.e., the financial burden of the agencies is disproportionally carried by the smaller donors. The study also finds that factors such as inherent donor generosity, donor concern for domestic egalitarianism, and the extent to which donors are pro‐poor in their bilateral aid policies have an impact on their readiness to support multilateral agencies financially. Size of the donor government and its budgetary balance positively influence burden sharing of contributions to other multilateral agencies. But neither the phase of economic cycle nor the rate of economic growth affects the burden‐sharing responsibility of donors. It was also observed that contributions by EU members to the EC do not appear to crowd‐out their contributions to other multilateral aid agencies and that right‐wing donor governments are generally more parsimonious with regard to financial assistance to multilateral aid agencies. The preferred alternative, particularly among EU member countries, appears to be the EC.     

论公司法与反垄断法的良性互动

公司是《中华人民共和国公司法》《中华人民共和国反垄断法》共同保护和规范的重要市场主体。但在法学研究和执法实践中仍存在碎片化和孤岛化的现象。在两法双双迎来修改之际,立法者应推动两法的无缝对接、有机衔接、同频共振、相辅相成。两法和而不同,都致力于提升公司活力,促进市场经济健康发展,都遵循民法基本原则。公司并购反垄断执法应秉持包容审慎、处罚谦抑、服务能动的理念,充分尊重并有效保障公司的生存权和发展权;公司并购反垄断审查应采取“原则放行、例外禁止”的政策。建议反垄断执法机构继续保持法治定力,坚持反垄断执法的常态化、法治化与专业化;新《反垄断法》基于“谁主张、谁举证”的理念,确立由反垄断执法机构就公司并购具有排除、限制竞争效果的事实承担举证责任的一般原则。从公司并购限制性条件的适用范围而言,应确立“可限可不限的,坚决不限”的立场。反垄断处罚措施的选择和使用应体现过罚相当的公平原则和比例原则。建议《反垄断法》专章规定“垄断行为的预防”,增加执法机构事先预防和事中监管的法定职责。落实《反垄断法》的治本之策是激活公司治理机制。公司并购反垄断中的控制权认定规则应尽量对标对表《公司法》。自我预防垄断应成为大型公司的核心社会责任。     

Perishable-food-rescue programs: Status and prospects

As restaurants have tightened their food-handling policies to cut wasteful overproduction, programs that channel excess food to human-assistance agencies have seen donations drop. That is a cue for charitable agencies to seek a closer alliance with potential donors.     

Possible ethical issues and their impact on the firm: Perceptions held by public accountants

The accounting profession is concerned with the ethical beliefs of its members. To this end, the authors surveyed public accountants, questioning them about the AICPA's Code of Professional Conduct and their perceptions of how potentially unethical behaviors impact the firm. The paper focuses on respondents' perceptions of the impact on the firm's practice, image and degree of concern.Public accountants appear to agree with the AICPA's Code of Professional Ethics. Their mean responses indicate they believe the Code components are important and extremely important. Some Code components were significantly more important than others, especially demonstrating professionalism and maintaining independence while performing independent audits. Gender, role and organizational level all had significant effects on the importance of the Code. Males, non-auditors and upper management all expressed stronger beliefs in the importance of the overall Code and its components.Significant differences exist in respondents' perceptions of how twelve potential ethical dilemmas impact the firm. Statistically significant differences were found in the way these behaviors harm the firm's business. Similarly, statistically significant differences exist in the degree that the firm's image is tarnished if its members engage in these behaviors and in the extent of the firm's concern about the implications of these behaviors.Not only do the various behaviors impact the firm differently, but the materiality of the behavior or the direction of the behavior result in significant differences in the extent the firm is impacted. Settling technical issues in the client's favor in response to client pressure, failing to correct known omissions and failing to correct known errors had greater impact on the firm when the technical issues, omissions and errors were material than when they were immaterial. Accountants perceived that giving unfair performance appraisals marred the firm's business more than receiving unfair performance appraisals did. Over reporting expenses on expense sheets had larger effects on the firm's business, image and level of concern. Over reporting hours had a stronger impact on the firm's image and level of concern, but under reporting hours had more of an impact on the firm's ability to transact business.Jeffrey Kantor is a Professor of Accounting at the University of Windsor.Ira Greenberg is the Director of The School of Accounting at the University of Detroit Mercy.Jeanne David is an Assistant Professor at the University of Detroit Mercy.     

2008C-R3中国广告代理综合评估报告

根据CTR的预测，2008年中国广告业的总经营额将超过4000亿人民币，首次超过日本，仅次于美国列世界第二。确实就如我几年前说的一样，我们已经不缺少规模，但是更需要与这种规模相适应的行业的标准资源。好在今天有了这个日趋成熟的《中国广告代理评估报告》，真的有一种发自内心的欣慰。     

Client influence and advertising standardization: a survey of ad agencies

With increased globalization of markets, the standardization of products, services, and promotion activities has streamlined the work performed by advertising agencies. In this study, managing directors of Australian and US advertising agencies were questioned about the extent their clients influence agency functions and the degree of standardization used. It was found that copywriting was the main service offered and the clients usually have a major influence on their services. As for those that handle multi-country campaigns, older agencies tend to be more involved in international markets, and there was some degree of standardizing of campaigns and creative work.     

What’s in a Credo? A Critique of the Academy of Management’s Code of Ethical Conduct and Code of Ethics

The Academy of Management formally adopted a Code of Ethical Conduct in 1990. During the subsequent 15 years, almost nothing had been published about it and its value as a formal document meant to guide professional practice. Rather surprisingly then, in December 2005 an entirely new Code of Ethics was introduced by the Academy’s Board, to take effect in February 2006. Why was a new code promulgated? More broadly, what do the contents of these codes, the processes of their promulgation, and their expressed purposes, suggest about the value of such codes for similarly situated professional associations, in general? This article seeks to identify key strengths and weaknesses of the original code, begin an assessment of the potential value of the new code, and so stimulate debate. Further, not only is this a call to the members of the Academy to engage in some thoughtful debate and possible amendment of its new code, but also a caution to all such associations to take seriously the hurdles that must be jumped before any code can be developed and promulgated to worthwhile effect.     

基于法源的股市制度主成分比较与因子回归分析

本文以50个国家和地区的股市作为研究样本,按照法源分类,对股东权利、债权人权利及宏观制度三类制度指标进行主成分比较、因子得分计算及其与股市发展的回归分析。结果发现:(1)英国法源的国家最为重视对股东权利的保护,德国法源的国家最为重视对债权人权利的保护,斯堪的纳维亚法源国家的宏观制度环境较好。就中国股市制度而言,比较重视股东权利保护,而债权人权利保护和宏观制度环境则相对较差。(2)在影响股市发展的诸多因素中,制度性因素至关重要;与“债权人权利指标”相比,“股东权利指标”和“宏观制度指标”对股市发展的影响则更为显著。     

Technological competence and team cohesiveness among travel agencies

From the perspective of collaboration, the independent travel agent has provided it makes appropriate investment in technology and creates competitive advantage. The research goals of this study were to investigate how strategic adaptation among the members of travel agent collaborations affects service performance. Data were obtained via a mailed questionnaire survey of a sample of travel agencies. The model and the hypotheses were tested using a structural equation modeling approach. The findings of this study provide interesting insights for travel agencies interested in service performance. Technological competence has emerged as an important asset in travel agent collaboration, which can be used to increase the productivity of knowledge works through the management of service performance, and different strategies are discussed in terms of different segments of partners within the collaboration.     

Functionalist and Conflict Views of AICPA Code of Conduct: Public Interest vs. Self Interest

The sociological models of functionalism and conflict are introduced and utilized to analyze professionalism in the accounting profession as it is manifest in the American Institute of Certified Public Accountant's Code of Conduct. Rule 203 of the Code and provisions of the Code related to the public interest are examined using semiotic analysis to determine if they are most consistent with the functionalist or conflict models. While the analysis does not address intent of the Code, it is determined that the Code contains semantic defects which result in different interpretations of the Code to different readers. The defects found are most consistent with the conflict model of professionalism. This has implications for the public and for individuals within the profession, making the Code less useful to both groups. The defects are seen as a potential battleground for the self-interest vs the public interest orientation of the accounting profession.     

Partner or supplier: An examination of client/agency relationships in an IMC context

There is growing evidence from practitioners that the advertising industry is in a state of crisis. As campaigns become more integrated and multi-disciplinary, the relationship between advertising agencies and clients is being tested to its limits and is presently considered to be at an all-time low. Agencies feel less valued and are being excluded from C-suite discussion. Clients feel that agencies do not appreciate the changing landscape and how the customer experience is now key. Both sides recognise the need for more trust and collaboration. This study applies the agency theory and the social power theory to understand the pressures that the relationship is under. It looks for evidence that IMC is creating a movement away from a business alliance relationship by comparing qualitative data collected from both agencies and clients, using NVivo to identify themes. The findings identify four themes which illustrate this shift towards a supplier relationship: the client ownership of the customer journey, the lack of a strategic role of agencies, the challenges of agency collaboration and difficulties of agency specialisation.     

Problems of a code of conduct

UNCTAD’s Main Committee for Technology is to meet in November 1975 to discuss once again the subject of a Code of Conduct to be observed in transferring technical knowledge. What chances are there for such a Code to be adopted?     

宪法第一修正案保护下的美国信用评级机构 ——以司法判例为视角

传统上,美国信用评级机构主张评级报告属于涉及公共利益的意见,援引宪法第一修正案进行抗辩,实际恶意标准是最重要的保护手段。《2010年华尔街改革和消费者保护法》等法律法规的出台反映美国加强评级业监管的理念。虽然美国各级法院做法存在差异,但是现在普遍认为判断信用评级机构能否免责应基于自身在构建商事交易中的作用。作为商业言论的评级报告不一定能适用实际恶意标准,但是可以获得宪法第一修正案对于言论自由的其他保护。美国经验对中国信用评级机构法律责任的构建和司法审判具有借鉴意义。     

Toward a “Social Control in the Advertising Agency”

Abstract

Advertising agencies, like other organizations, exercise social control over their members. Although this has been commented upon by a number of advertising practitioners and social scientists, virtually nothing about this phenomenon and its consequences can be found in advertising texts; and undergraduates are typically unaware of it. Advertising teachers, therefore, have an ethical obligation to include a discussion of this matter in the undergraduate curriculum.