Strategic intent and performance: The role of resource allocation decisions

The notion that a firm's strategic intent can affect its performance through managerial actions has become prominent in the organization literature. In this research, we propose that strategic aggressive firms will foster decisions that favor holding low levels of slack and low levels of R&D investments, resulting in increased firm ROI, and that a firm's risk preference will moderate the indirect effect of strategic intent on performance. Findings from moderated mediation analyses on data from 130 firms in manufacturing industries support our hypotheses. Specifically, the indirect effect of a firm's strategic intent on a firm's performance is moderated by its risk aversion, such that when risk aversion is high, the indirect effect of strategic intent on performance through slack is strengthened. Similarly, the indirect effect of strategic intent on firm performance through R&D investments is strengthened, when risk aversion is high.     

Creating ethical brands: the role of brand name on consumer perceived ethicality

A critical component of brand equity is consumer perceived ethicality (CPE) of the brand. Yet, little is known about how to create positive brand CPE. We offer that the starting point for creating brand CPE is with the brand-naming decision. Drawing on sound symbolism theory, we propose that certain brand name characteristics better convey ethicality. Two studies are conducted. Study 1 finds that higher frequency sounds in brand names better convey ethicality than lower frequency sounds. Study 2 finds that brand names can positively impact brand CPE in the presence of additional information, in particular, information that reflects negatively on the brand’s ethical behavior. These results suggest that marketers be more involved at the onset of creating an ethical brand image.     

The role of perceived control and gender in consumer reactions to download delays

An empirical study finds that perceived control strongly mediates the effects of perceived speed of a Web site download on consumers' attitudes and intentions to use the Web site. Moreover, results show that men are more likely to react positively to the perceived speed of a Web site download, whereas women are more likely to base their reactions on perceptions of control in the context of download delays. In contrast to past online research, the gender differences are intrinsic in two ways—they are context independent, and they are not caused by length of Internet experience, extent of Internet usage, or type of Internet connections.     

The timing and context of consumer decisions

Researchers have long recognized the importance of studying consumption activities over time, but they have had inadequate theories and methods for studying consumers over the course of their lives. This paper suggests that the life course paradigm that has been widely used in social sciences could be employed to overcome some limitations of previous consumer research. To illustrate its application, two consumption activities are used??one first-time and another repeat choice. Hypotheses are developed based on the most popular life course theoretical perspectives, and data from a national longitudinal study are used to test them. The results show that consumers are influenced by prior life experiences and future expectations, and they suggest the value of studying consumer behavior in time and context using the life course paradigm. Finally, the paper discusses implications for theory development and future research using this innovative approach.     

Delineating the role of endorser's perceived qualities and consumer characteristics on celebrity endorsement effectiveness

This study examines the influence of both endorser's credibility qualities, such as expertise and trustworthiness, and consumers' characteristics, such as gender and team identification, on endorsement effectiveness expressed as purchase intentions. A survey quasi-experimental research design was used in the context of sports celebrity endorsements. Data were collected from 289 respondents via a convenience sample. The findings indicated gender differences only on team identification and not on endorsers' perceived qualities or on endorsement effectiveness. Team identification differences had a significant impact on purchase intentions while marginally affected athletes' credibility. Of the two examined elements of credibility, trustworthiness constitutes a significant differentiation factor for purchase intentions. The study provides several theoretical and practical implications.     

The effects of in-store themed events on consumer store choice decisions

Retailers are increasingly using in-store events to provide shoppers with unique experiences that will enhance shopping value and help differentiate their stores from competitors. However, relatively little is known about how consumers respond to experiential retail events in terms of their store choice decisions. The purpose of this research was to find out how in-store retail events affect consumers in terms of their store choice decisions. The paper presents findings from a discrete choice experiment that manipulated the presence of different types of in-store themed events in a do-it-yourself (DIY) category. Participants were 312 randomly recruited residents of Melbourne, Australia, who had recently shopped at a hardware store. The experiment was implemented as a mail-back survey. Using logit models the authors assess the effects of the in-store events along with those of various traditional store attributes, including store appearance, price image and distance, on consumer store choice decisions.     

A construction of consumer cognitive structures and their implications in furniture shopping decisions: a means-end chain approach

The main purpose of this study is to construct a hierarchical value map (HVM) based on an investigation of how consumers in Taiwan link attributes of furniture and home accessories stores with particular consequences, and how these consequences satisfy their personal values. Further, this study compares differences in consumer HVMs in terms of gender, as well as across different chain stores. This study used the means-end chain approach and laddering technique to interview 40 consumers of furniture and home accessories stores in Taiwan. We obtained six ladders regarding furniture and home accessories store consumption. From these ladders, this study found three critical store attributes (function, facility convenience, and price), four consequences that consumers care most about (shopping ease, comfort and pleasure, practicality, and integrated design), and three dominant values that consumers wish to achieve (warm family, pleasurable life, and security). The findings of this study can be used as a basis for market segmentation and the development of retail service marketing strategies.     

航空产品的消费行为调查

中国航空运输业近年来发展迅速,国外各大航空公司逐渐进入试图分割这场这块蛋糕,国内航空公司也在积极拓展市场,开辟更多新航线,民营航空风生水起。享受着更多的折扣机票和更优质的服务,然而,航空消费者的群体有着怎样的特征,他们对航空业的现状又满意吗？     

The perceived utility of information presented via electronic decision aids: A consumer perspective

Recent advancements in electronic technology have made possible a viable alternative information delivery system in the form of Electronic Decision Aids (EDAs). However, consumers will only benefit from such technological innovations if they are perceived to be useful in facilitating the decision making process. The current study investigates the effects of type of EDA format (autonomous versus dominant) and provision of educational information on the perceived utility of information presented via an electronic decision aid. In addition, the relationships between these two dimensions and specific consumer characteristics, including product familiarity, computer familiarity, and locus of control, as well as product type (search versus experience goods) are systematically identified and evaluated. Results suggest that selection of an appropriate format depends upon the nature of the product being selected, while inclusion of educational information enhances perceived utility of the information in selecting both types of products.

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Der wahrgenommene Nutzen von Informationen, die durch elektronische Entscheidungshilfen bereitgestellt werden: eine Verbraucherperspektive

Zusammenfassung Elektronische Entscheidungshilfen in Einzelhandelsgeschäften sind eine neuartige Form der produktbezogenen Verbraucherinformation, die durch neuere technologische Entwicklungen ermöglicht wurde. Ob diese Innovation bei Konsumenten Erfolg haben wird, dürfte wesentlich davon abhängen, wie nützlich sie für den Kaufentscheidungsprozess eingeschätzt wird.Der Beitrag berichtet über eine empirische Studie darüber, wie diese wahrgenommene Nützlichkeit abhängig ist von der Informationsform (unterschieden danach, ob der sich informierende Verbraucher den Informationsvorgang eigenständig kontrollieren und gestalten kann oder nicht) und davon, ob die Information auch Bestandteile umfasst, die die generelle Produktkenntnis erhöhen und dadurch zusätzliche aufklärende Wirkung erzielen können, oder nicht. Ausserdem wurde der Einfluss der Produktart sowie der Produktvertrautheit des Konsumenten und seiner Vertrautheit mit dem Computer analysiert. Die Ergebnisse wurden in Laboruntersuchungen gewonnen, bei denen es um die Wahl eines Fotoapparates und um die Wahl eines Arztes ging.Es zeigt sich, dass es von der Produktart abhängig ist, welche der beiden Informationsformen zweckmässiger ist, wogegen durchgängig gilt, dass zusätzliche aufklärende Informationsbestandteile die wahrgenommene Nützlichkeit von Informationen erhoehen.

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Donna J. Hill is Associate Professor of Marketing, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA. Maryon F. King is Assistant Professor of Marketing, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA. Eli Cohen is Associate Professor and Head. Computer Information Systems. College of Business. Eastern New Mexico University, Portales. NM 88130, USA.     

The effects of emotion and need for cognition on consumer choice involving risk

Building upon previous research, this article proposes that the effect of mood on risk-taking is moderated by the individual’s need for cognition. The hypothesized effect of mood and the need for cognition are tested with different types of consumer choices in three studies. Consistent with the hypotheses, the results indicate that the subjects in happy mood tend to be risk-aversive while the subjects in sad mood incline to take risks. Furthermore, the mood affects risk-taking behavior more for the low-NFC subjects than for the high-NFC ones. Finally, implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Store environment and consumer purchase behavior: Mediating role of consumer emotions

This article presents a large-scale cross-sectional field study of the effect of store environment on consumer emotions and the resulting influence on aspects of consumer behavior with actual shopping behavior used as an example. Cast into a stimulus–organism–response framework, the results suggest that a consumer's emotions can be a mediating factor in the purchase process. In this study, we identify and explore how store environment and emotional states may influence various dimensions of purchase behavior. This research confirms that although cognitive factors may largely account for store selection and for most planned purchases within the store, the environment in the store and the emotional state of consumers may be important determinants of purchase behavior. This research has many pragmatic applications, because pleasure was associated with the amount of money spent and affinity for the store, whereas arousal was associated with money spent in the store, time spent in the store, and the number of items purchased in the store. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The role of advertising in consumer emotion management

Consumer research has demonstrated that emotions play an important role in the decisionmaking process. Individuals may use consumption or purchasing as a way to manage their emotions. This research develops a model to help explain the process by which individuals engage in consumption to manage their emotions, and examines the efficacy of an advertisement for a hedonic product that uses affect-laden language to stimulate such a process. Results suggest that favourable emotional responses from an advertisement can lead to positive attitudes towards the advertisement, prefactual thinking in the form of hedonic rationalisations and greater behavioural intentions. Additionally, guilt from consuming and purchasing these hedonic products can be mitigated, which is also associated with greater behavioural intentions. Findings have implications for marketers and advertisers of hedonic products.     

Entry decisions of multinational firms: The role of competition threats

How do multinational corporations (MNCs) influence each other's foreign entry decisions? In this paper, I examine the interactions in MNCs' entry decisions by investigating how MNCs respond to competition threats from their multinational competitors. The analysis shows that entry threats anticipated through foreign investment news encourage MNCs to take preemptive actions by entering the same city after the news, while the actual entry of competitors and the anticipated expansion of incumbents discourage more entry. Incumbent MNCs, on the other hand, respond to entry threats by upgrading productivity. The effect of competition threats depends on each MNC's own existing activity and production network within the region. The effect of entry threats increases with the size of threats, measured by the investment value, expected employment and expected output, the influence of the news, the credibility of the news and the local market orientation of the threats. Across industries, MNCs' entry decisions are found to respond to only the actual entry—not anticipated entry—in vertically linked industries. Further, by exploring the time path, I find that MNCs' preemptive entry is only taken before FDI news expires. The main results are robust to IV analyses that explore unique information from news source and news content.     

Authentic British food products: a review of consumer perceptions

Historically, soil, land, climatic constraints and individuals’ skills all contributed to the characteristics of regional food. Food, however, is also subject to the influences of colonialism, immigration, cultural exchange, international trade, improved distribution and technology. British food is constantly evolving in order to fulfil the demands of each generation. Thus, the concept of an authentic British food product is becoming increasingly unclear. This paper therefore addresses what today British consumers actually perceive to be authentic British foods. Results of an exploratory qualitative study are reviewed. Five focus groups were conducted with individuals responsible for half or more of their household’s shopping. The groups incorporated consumers with a range of demographic and economic characteristics. The data gathered from the focus groups revealed that British perceptions of authenticity relate to both artisan as well mass‐produced, branded products. In addition, five dimensions affecting consumer perceptions of an authentic British food product were identified, including: uniqueness to Britain, a cultural or traditional association with Britain, characteristics of the production process, the presence of an authority and specific extrinsic characteristics of the product. The findings have implications for product differentiation and communication, for producers and retailers and also for independent trade associations.     

The role of positive emotions in experiential decisions

This research examines how consumers experience decision making for experiential products such as vacations. We combine data from 1) ethnographic interviews, 2) online community discussion forums, and 3) an introspective vacation-planning task to explore the experience of emotion in the decision process and to develop a new model of decision making that extends extant decision theories. We find that consumers experience a variety of positive emotions as they plan vacations, from facilitative feelings that guide the plan to fantasy feelings consumed for pleasure. Positive emotions are most evident in reaction to imagery and when the consumer's self identity is salient, and often precede more analytic information processing. Overall, this research offers a richer understanding of the emotional nature of consumer decision making for experiential products and services.     

The perceived role of ethics and social responsibility: A scale development

Marketers must first perceive ethics and social responsibility to be important before their behaviors are likely to become more ethical and reflect greater social responsibility. However, little research has been conducted concerning marketers' perceptions regarding the importance of ethics and social responsibility as components of business decisions. The purpose of this study is to develop a reliable and valid scale for measuring marketers' perceptions regarding the importance of ethics and social responsibility. The authors develop an instrument for the measurement of the perceived role of ethics and social responsibility (PRESOR). Evidence that the scale is valid is presented through the assessment of scale reliability, as well as content and predictive validity. Finally, future research needs and the value of this construct to marketing are discussed. Anusorn Singhapakdi is Associate Professor of Marketing at Old Dominion University. He received his Ph.D. in Marketing. His has published in the Journal of Macromarketing, the Journal of Business Ethics, the Business and Professional Ethics Journal, the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, the Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management and the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. He has presented papers at various professional conferences including the American Marketing Association and the Academy of Marketing Science. Scott J. Vitell is Associate Professor of Marketing and holder of the Phil B. Hardin Chair of Marketing at the University of Mississippi. He received his Ph.D. in Marketing. His work has previously appeared in the Journal of Macromarketing, the Journal of Business Ethics, Research in Marketing, the Business and Professional Ethics Journal and the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science as well as various other journals and proceedings. Kumar C. Rallapalli is Assistant Professor of Marketing at Troy State University. His research has been published in the Journal of Business Ethics, the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science and the Journal of Pharmaceutical Marketing and Management as well as various national and regional proceedings. His research interests include marketing ethics, health care marketing, international marketing and direct marketing. Kenneth L. Kraft is Director of Graduate Studies at the University of Tampa. He received his DBA in Management. He has published numerous articles on Business Ethics, Organization Design and Strategic Planning in Journals such as the Academy of Management Review, America Business Review and the Journal of Business Ethics. His current research interest centers on the measurement of moral intensity.     

The role of corporate governance in FDI decisions: Evidence from Taiwan

There has been a considerable literature on the determinants of why firms undertake foreign direct investment (FDI), but very little on whether firms with different governance characteristics are more or less likely to venture overseas. For example, are family-controlled firms more predisposed to FDI than firms, with similar attributes, but different forms of ownership? Does the presence of institutional shareholders suggest a greater propensity to invest abroad? Does the composition of the Board of Directors have an impact? Most extant studies of corporate governance focus on the impact of governance factors on firm performance. However, these performance outcomes are a function of the strategic decisions made by the firms, which suggests it might be useful to consider the relationship between corporate governance factors and particular strategic decisions. One example is the decision to undertake foreign direct investment. The two main strands of IB literature on the determinants of FDI have little or nothing to say about how corporate governance factors might affect the FDI decision. Both internalisation theory and the resource-based view see FDI primarily as a means by which firms can appropriate rents in overseas markets from the exploitation of their idiosyncratic resources and capabilities. This paper extends this literature by investigating the effects of governance factors on the decision to undertake FDI. In particular, we want to assess the impact upon the FDI decision of (a) the extent of family control, (b) the presence of domestic and foreign institutional shareholders, and (c) the composition of the Board of Directors. We investigate these effects using a sample of 228 publicly listed firms in Taiwan, and our results clearly indicate that family control and share ownership by domestic financial institutions in Taiwanese firms are associated with the decision to undertake FDI. We also find that corporate governance impacts in different ways with regard to Taiwanese FDI in China in comparison to Taiwanese FDI in the rest of the world.     

Seeking redress for consumer dissatisfaction: The role of attitudes and situational factors

The value of consumer complaints in consumer protection and in the effective management of the firm has been demonstrated. This paper reports a survey of Dutch consumers to determine the extent to which consumer attitudes toward seeking redress through complaints is correlated with actual complaint behavior. It concludes that situation-specific factors are stronger influences on whether consumers complain than general attitudes and discusses how these factors can be used to encourage legitimate consumer complaints.

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Reaktionen bei Verbraucher-Unzufriedenheit: Die Rolle von Einstellungen und situativen Faktoren

Zusammenfassung Es ist erwiesen, daß Verbraucherbeschwerden sowohl für den Schutz des Verbrauchers wie auch für eine effektive Unternehmensführung von Bedeutung sind. Der vorliegende Beitrag berichtet über eine Untersuchung bei 304 holländischen Verbrauchern zu der Frage, in welchem Ausmaße die Einstellungen von Verbrauchern zu Beschwerdeverhalten zusammenhängen mit dem tatsächlichen Beschwerdeverhalten. Einstellungen wurden dabei über eine 15-item-Skala gemessen, die einer Faktoren-Analyse unterzogen wurde und drei Bereiche erfaßt: (a) gesellschaftliche Normen über Beschwerdeverhalten, (b) Kosten und Mühen des Beschwerdeverhaltens und (c) vermutliche Ansprechbarkeit der Verkäufer durch Verbraucherbeschwerden.Eine multiple Regressions-Analyse ergab eine signifikante, jedoch nur schwache Beziehung zwischen dem ersten Einstellungsfaktor und einer Beschwerde-Neigung, die erfaßt wurde als allgemeine Selbsteinschätzung hinsichtlich der Tendenz, bei Unzufriedenheiten mit Beschwerdeverhalten zu reagieren. Es zeigte sich keine signifikante Beziehung zwischen den drei Einstellungsfaktoren und dem Beschwerdeverhalten aufgrund einer spezifischen Verbraucherunzufriedenheit. Weitere Analysen zeigten, daß vielmehr vier situative Variable in signifikanter Beziehung zum tatsächlichen Beschwerdeverhalten stehen, nämlich (a) der Produktpreis, (b) die Schwere des Problems mit einem nicht-zufriedenstellenden Produkt, (c) die wahrgenommene Mühe, die durch eine Beschwerde verursacht wird, und (d) die wahrgenommene Bereitschaft des Verkäufers, die Unzufriedenheit zu beseitigen.Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung und Befunde früherer Untersuchungen legen den Schluß nahe, daß das Beschwerdeverhalten bei Unzufriedenheit eher von situationsspezifischen Faktoren beeinflußt wird als von generellen Einstellungen. Solche generellen Einstellungen können jedoch das Beschwerdeverhalten über längere Zeit bei einer größeren Zahl von Unzufriedenheits-Fällen beeinflussen. Der Beitrag schließt mit einer Erörterung, wie Verbraucher bei berechtigter Unzufriedenheit zu Beschwerden ermuntert werden können, und welche zusätzlichen Forschungslücken geschlossen werden müssen.

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Marsha L. Richins is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA. Bronislaw J. Verhage is an Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Management, Poortweg 6, NL-2612 PA Delft, The Netherlands.     

Ethics and politics of resource allocation: The role of nursing

The use of ethics in everyday nursing practice will become increasingly important to the individual nurse, and nursing as a profession, as technology has a greater impact on health status and the provision of health care. Resource allocation is only one example of an ethical issue in which nursing must have input. Nursing can expand its contribution to society by ensuring that it plays a major role in shaping public policy and legislation. If nursing is to continue to serve the public, the involvement of nurses within the political process must be accepted as an ethical necessity.Margaret Keatings, RN, MHSc, is the Director, Nursing Practice in the Department of Medicine at Toronto General Hospital. She combines this role with a strong interest in biomedical ethics to serve as co-chair of the hospital's clinical ethics committee. Keatings is also an assistant professor in the University of Toronto Faculty of Nursing. In spring 1988, she participated in an exchange program between Toronto General Hospital and a teaching hospital in Cambridge, England.Diana Dick, RN, BScN, MEd, co-ordinated a national campaign of the Canadian Nurses Association resulting in two significant amendments to the Canada Health Act (1984). As Project Manager with the Registered Nurses' Association of Ontario, she initiated the Association's involvement in the Grange Inquiry. She has taught at Seneca College, practised nursing in special care units, and written and spoken both nationally and internationally on resource allocation. Currently she works in a branch of Ontario's Pay Equity Commission.     

The impact of brand equity and the hedonic level of products on consumer stock-out reactions

We investigate the impact of brand equity and the hedonic level of the product on consumer stock-out responses. We also examine whether the hedonic level of the product moderates the effect of brand equity. Using a sample of Dutch consumers divided over eight product groups and eight retail chains, we tested our hypotheses and found that consumers were more loyal to high-equity brands than to low-equity brands in the case of a stock-out situation. In hedonic product groups, consumers were more likely to switch to another store. Purchasers of high-equity brands in hedonic product groups were, compared to purchasers of high-equity brands in utilitarian product groups, less inclined to postpone the purchase but were more likely to switch to another item by that brand. In addition to these two main variables, we also investigate the effect of variables from prior research and some new variables, such as stockpiling and impulse buying. Finally, we discuss the theoretical and managerial implications of the findings.