International outsourcing and incomplete contracts

Abstract.  International outsourcing to lower cost countries such as China and India can best be understood through the enrichment of trade models to include concepts from industrial organization and contract theory that explain the vertical organization of production. The combination of trade with the choice of organizational form represents an important new area for both theoretical and empirical research. This survey paper provides a perspective on this new literature so as to gain insights into the forces driving international outsourcing. The paper focuses on relationship‐specific investment, incomplete contracts, and also search and matching, as fundamental concepts that explain outsourcing decisions. JEL classification: F1, L14     

Asset prices and business cycles under market incompleteness

In this paper, we study the quantitative implications of a real business cycle model where the firm is the capital owner, households are heterogeneous, and markets are incomplete due to restricted asset trade. Since, under these assumptions, the usual firm objective is no longer well defined, several non-standard objectives are incorporated into the model. These include variants of market value maximization and a utility function for the firm. We find that the presence of market incompleteness alters little the behavior of asset returns. On the other hand, the behavior of the macroeconomic aggregates is quite sensitive to the firm objective, which affects the capital accumulation path. In contrast to conventional findings, capital is not necessarily higher when markets are incomplete. In addition, the different capital accumulation effects imply that shareholders with different asset wealth might prefer different firm objectives.     

Exports versus FDI in German Manufacturing: Firm Performance and Participation in International Markets

Recent theoretical work has been able to explain how even within narrowly defined industries, firms can exhibit heterogeneous degrees of participation in international commerce. Differences in productivity between firms are the principal explanation offered by theory to explain heterogeneity with respect to international commerce. In particular, theory predicts that the least productive firms will produce for the domestic market only, while better performers engage in export activities, and the top firms establish foreign subsidiaries. This paper presents an empirical test of the relationship between productivity and patterns of international trade and production. Using German firm‐level data from 1996 to 2002, we test the predicted rank ordering of productivity according to firms’ trade pattern by examining the distribution functions of the three subsets of firms for stochastic dominance. Our results are generally consistent with the predictions from theory, and document significant productivity differences according to trade patterns.     

International outsourcing when labour markets are unionized

Abstract. We consider the implications of international outsourcing in a simple general equilibrium model where the wage rate is the outcome of negotiations between a firm and a trade union. The effects of potential, but non‐realized, international outsourcing, is a reduction in the wage rate and an increase in employment. Aggregate welfare increases, but the trade union becomes worse off while owners of capital become better off. Realized international outsourcing gives rise to an increase in the wage rate and a reduction in employment. Aggregate welfare decreases, but the trade union becomes better off, while owners of capital become worse off.     

International outsourcing and the demand for skills

This paper explores the impact of international outsourcing on the demand for skills in three small and open EU economies. A model of variable costs and factor demand functions for different skill levels and imported as well as domestic materials are constructed. International outsourcing is treated directly as a substitution process between labour of different skills and imported inputs. The direct consequence of international outsourcing for labour is measured by the cross price elasticities. These cross price elasticities indicate a negative outsourcing impact on low- and medium-skilled labour in the three countries and on high-skilled labour in two out of the three countries. This outsourcing effect on labour is compared with the direct effect of embodied technical change and of the technical change bias. International outsourcing has a more unambigous and significant negative impact on labour than technical change. Technical change is either labour using (embodied technical change) or only slightly biased in favour of high-skilled labour. When the cost savings effect of international outsourcing is taken into account, an indirect positive stimulus for all skill categories arises from a greater demand for goods. It can be shown, that this indirect positive effect can compensate for a large part of the negative substitution impact of international outsourcing on labour.     

International outsourcing,wage gap,and welfare

Comparing to other OECD countries, “the Japanese economy appears to not yet be fully taking advantage of international outsourcing” (Tomiura, 2008). Would the different attitudes toward international outsourcing strategy make a difference in the welfare of the economy as a whole? To address this issue, I present a three-country model to argue that a country that is engaged in international outsourcing, ceteris paribus, will have a higher wage rate than the country otherwise. Welfare improves in all countries since the benefits of international outsourcing diffuse abroad. However, the diffusion effect increases with the relative scale of the outsourcer to non-outsourcer.     

International trade, flexible manufacturing, and outsourcing

Abstract .  This study analyzes the impact of opening up markets on the diffusion of flexible manufacturing in a general equilibrium framework. With flexible manufacturing, suppliers can service a range of downstream industries and do not have to be concerned about being held up. Instead, the vertical structure is determined by the trade-off between economies of scale in flexible manufacturing and product specificity of in-house production. The analysis derives a number of testable predictions with regard to firm size and productivity measures and shows that globalization can lead to a consolidation in upstream markets, lower real wages, and reduce welfare.     

Physical capital,knowledge capital,and the choice between FDI and outsourcing

Abstract There exist two approaches in the literature concerning the multinational firm’s mode choice for foreign production between an owned subsidiary and a licensing contract. One approach considers environments where the firm transfers primarily knowledge‐based assets and assumes that knowledge is non‐excludable. A more recent approach takes the property‐right view of the firm and assumes that physical capital is fully excludable. This paper combines both forms of capital assets in a single model. There are subtleties, and added structure is needed to establish what ex ante seems a straightforward testable hypothesis: relatively physical‐capital‐intensive firms choose outsourcing while relatively knowledge‐capital‐intensive firms choose FDI.     

International oligopoly,barriers to outsourcing and domestic employment

In this paper we analyze the impact of barriers to outsourcing on domestic employment in an oligopolistic context. We show that although an outsourcing tax makes domestic labour cheaper, its employment effect is ambiguous due to strategic considerations. Analyzing international policy interdependence, we also show that, although a unilateral tax (subsidy) by a country must raise its domestic employment, this may be counterproductive in a Nash policy equilibrium. Finally, both a credit crisis and increased product differentiation tend to worsen the employment effects of an outsourcing tax. Our central findings are robust to both Bertrand and Cournot modes of competition.     

FDI与外包:基于企业国际化模式选择的对比分析

FDI和外包是企业制定国际化战略中最重要的两种模式.本文通过建立发达国家企业国际化模式的选择模型,利用改进的柯布道格拉斯函数,比较外包模式和FDI模式下单个企业的利润差异,并且通过建立寡头垄断下的博弈模型,分析竞争环境中企业的国际化模式选择.模型分析表明,产业特性、东道国的经济环境以及企业的发展战略是影响企业选择 FDI模式还是外包模式的重要因素.     

Intellectual property rights and skills accumulation: A product-cycle model of FDI and outsourcing

This study investigates the effects of stronger intellectual property rights (IPR) protection in the South on innovation, skills accumulation, wage inequality, and patterns of production based on a North–South general-equilibrium model with foreign direct investment (FDI) and international outsourcing. We find that stronger Southern IPR protection raises the extent of outsourcing and reduces the extent of FDI. This increases the proportion of unskilled Southerners and mitigates Southern wage inequality. In the North, stronger Southern IPR protection raises the proportion of skilled Northerners and wage inequality. The effects of international specialization, R&D cost, and Northern population are also examined.     

国际人才流入是否影响我国FDI区位选择

根据相关经验研究及理论模型可知,国际人才流入可通过降低国际贸易壁垒提高贸易自由度。利用2006-2013年中国内地29个省市面板数据,实证分析了国际人才流入对FDI区位分布的影响。结果显示,国际人才流入与地区FDI水平显著正相关,但国际人才流入对FDI区位分布的影响存在一定区域差异。同时,国际人才流入与企业经营环境及地理集聚水平之间存在某种替代效应,即国际人才流入能够在一定程度上弥补由于企业经营环境缺失和地理集聚水平低下带来的负面影响。此外,良好的企业经营环境和较高的地理集聚水平也对FDI区位分布具有重要影响。上述结论对于我国进一步提升外商直接投资国际竞争力及促进我国FDI区域分布平衡具有重要理论参考价值,同时也对其它新兴发展中国家具有启示作用。     

中国FDI的国际竞争力与环境保护责任

在世界经济一体化进程中和我国实施“走出去”的战略中,中国对外直接投资（FDI）在全球中的地位逐步提高,促进了世界经济发展。同时中国也重视国际环境合作和制度建设,鼓励境外投资企业严格履行环境保护与社会责任,以推动可持续发展和和谐世界的构建。     

国家主要FDI政策与国际投资协定的发展

国家的FDI政策对吸引国际直接投资具有重要作用。近年来,这些政策发生了很大的变化。与此同时,各层面的国际投资协定(ⅡAs)在内容和形式以及数量上也有了巨大的发展。各层面的ⅡAs都有自己的优缺点,各国在参与ⅡAs时,要权衡自身的利益与发展需要。ⅡAs在很大的程度上是对一国FDI政策的补充。国际投资协定的增加导致了各国的政策框架趋于相似。国际投资协定为投资者提供了一个更透明、稳定、可预期和安全的环境,也是一个更加开放的环境。     

Foreign versus domestic outsourcing: Firm-level evidence on the role of technology

The decision about where to outsource varies across firms and industries. General machinery heavily depends on domestic subcontractors, while outsourcing overseas is prevalent in apparel. Based on firm-level data explicitly distinguishing foreign outsourcing from domestic outsourcing in all manufacturing industries, this paper finds that firms tend to prefer domestic outsourcing to foreign outsourcing when they are R&D-intensive. This finding is consistent with incomplete contracting models, since technologically complex products are likely to require high-quality contracting environment and assembler–supplier proximity. This paper also finds that firms connected with computer networks are actively outsourcing.     

FDI、国际贸易与国内企业的创新能力

本文研究了FDI与国际贸易对国内企业创新能力的影响.基于2004-2010年中国省级面板数据的计量检验和分析,得到以下结论:(1)出口贸易时国内企业创 新能力的正效应最大且显著,技术购买的效应则比出口要低,而FDI没有出现显著的正效应;(2)研发人员的投入对企业创新起了非常显著的促进作用,而研发经费的支出 虽然也显示了正向作用,但不太显著;(3)人均收入水平的提高对企业创新能力的提高有显著促进作用,而人力资源和政府支出效果不佳,甚至为负.本文最后提出了相 应的政策建议.     

Unemployment and welfare consequences of international outsourcing under monopolistic competition

This paper challenges the conventional academic view that international outsourcing is just another form of gainful trade. Contrary to that view, we show that labour‐service outsourcing can reduce the high‐wage country's welfare even when product‐market trade is beneficial, within a model that combines involuntary unemployment and monopolistic competition. Outsourcing's impact on welfare is worsened by a definite loss of jobs and a possible contraction in the range of varieties produced worldwide. While owners of capital benefit from outsourcing under certain conditions, labour's welfare always falls.     

FDI与国际贸易增长关系的实证分析与对策研究

笔者运用协整分析方法和误差修正模型,采用中国1982年～2003年的数据,对中国FDI与国际贸易增长的均衡关系进行研究,并对中国企业积极实施"走出去"战略问题予以分析。     

不完全契约条件下的贸易、投资与国际生产组织

文章运用一个多阶段生产模型分析了全球性产业中企业边界和生产区位的内生决定问题.在契约不完全条件下,企业根据利润最大化原则确定各个生产阶段的所有权和区位结构,最终形成了出口型国内企业、横向型和纵向型国际生产三种均衡形态.不同组织形态的产生取决于分工结构、契约环境、规模经济、生产成本和贸易成本等因素的共同作用,反映了全球经济中贸易、投资和企业组织之间的相互关系.     

Equilibrium unemployment with outsourcing and wage solidarity under labour market imperfections

We evaluate the effects of outsourcing and wage solidarity on wage formation and equilibrium unemployment in a heterogeneous labour market, where wages are determined by a monopoly labour union. We find that outsourcing promotes the wage dispersion between the high- and low-skilled workers. When the labour union adopts a solidaristic wage policy, it will dampen this tendency. Further, higher outsourcing will increase equilibrium unemployment among the high-skilled workers, whereas it will reduce it among the low-skilled workers. Overall, outsourcing will reduce economy-wide equilibrium unemployment under the reasonable condition that the proportion of high-skilled workers is sufficiently low.