The multiple effects of carbon values on optimal rotation

Non-consumptive benefits which increase with crop age, like keeping carbon sequestered, lengthen optimal rotation compared with rotation for timber alone. High proposed carbon prices may extend rotation indefinitely. Carbon storage in wood products reduces this tendency. Biomass as an energy source displacing fossil fuels favours rotations near those of maximum biomass productivity. Use of sawn timber to displace structural materials with high embodied carbon favours somewhat longer rotations. Effects of rotation on soil carbon, and fossil carbon volatilised in harvesting operations, are further complications. Including all carbon effects results in optimal rotations somewhat longer than those based only on timber value, but shorter than those based on timber plus forest carbon. To include all factors intuitively is not possible: balanced appraisal needs economic calculations.     

森林绿色核算中环境服务估价方法综述和比较

综述和比较了国内外森林绿色核算中的环境服务估价方法。指出:森林环境服务实际上是指森林的间接效益,主要包括森林生态效益和社会效益。联合国等在综合环境经济核算体系中推荐的森林环境服务估价方法主要为基于成本的估价法和基于损害/受益的估价法。不同的方法估算相同的环境服务项目,结果相差几倍到几十倍不等。因此,对于森林环境服务估价来说,选择科学的估价方法非常重要,并建议我国应采用联合国等推荐的方法进行环境服务估价。     

Colonialism and conservation: Commercialisation of forests and decline of tribals in Madras Presidency, 1882–1947

This article attempts to analyse the colonial forest policy and its impact on the environment and tribals in Madras Presidency during the post-Forest Act period (1882–1947). During this period, the colonial regime has actively encouraged commercialisation of forest resources while several restrictions were clamped up on the tribals and other forest users. Here it is argued that the initiatives of the state towards conservation were primarily intended to curtail the access enjoyed by tribals and other forest users to facilitate commercial exploitation. Plunder of forest wealth continued unhindered in a systematic manner leading to denudation of vast stretches of green cover and a drastic decline in the living conditions of the tribals in Madras Presidency.     

Taxation, life-time uncertainty and non-industrial private forest-owner's decision-making

The nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) owner's consumption and harvesting decisions are investigated under inheritance and capital income taxes using a two-period model. The impact of the forest-owner's age is introduced into the analysis through a parameter of perceived probability of surviving through a future period. This allows us to study the impacts of ageing on consumption and harvesting decisions as well as to see how the impact of taxes changes among different age groups of forest-owners. The results show that current consumption first decreases and then increases when moving from younger to older individuals regardless of whether non-timber assets are more or less heavily taxed through bequests than consumption. In general, we find that tax effects are dependent on the forest-owner's age. Age tends to intensify the increasing effect of the forest bequest tax on harvesting. The same is true with respect to the decreasing effect on harvesting of the inheritance tax imposed on non-forest assets. Furthermore, the forest-owner's age tends to intensify the effect on harvesting of the capital income tax imposed on forest assets, but diminishes the effect on harvesting of the capital income tax imposed on non-forest assets.     

Valuing high altitude spruce-fir forest improvements: importance of forest condition and recreation activity

High altitude spruce fir forests are typical around the world and are often subjected to multiple forms of recreational use. In this paper, we use household and recreation group data for a spruce fir forest high in the Appalachian Mountains of the U. S. to evaluate the benefits from forest protection (i. e., from improving the forest condition). Our benefits estimation procedures use the referendum-type, contingent valuation (CV) approach of Cameron (1988). We modify the usual practice of obtaining a single willingness-to-pay (WTP) value by using alternative questionnaire scenarios and conducting tests to examine i) household and recreation group value sensitivity to forest condition, and ii) recreation group differences in WTP for forest protection. A first sample of southeastern U. S. households was asked to value a forest protection program for a spruce-fir forest showing no impact from insect disturbance or atmospheric deposition. The second sample was asked to value a protection program for a forest already experiencing impact from insect infestation and air pollution. Logit analysis of the two samples revealed no statistically significant difference in household WTP between the two forest protection programs. Further analysis indicated that consumptive forest users (i. e., hunters and anglers) held forest protection values that were sensitive to a change forest condition, while nonconsumptive forest users (i. e., campers and hikers) held values that were insensitive to the same condition change. Recreation group comparisons revealed that consumptive forest users also held lower values for forest protection than nonconsumptive recreationists. These results demonstrate the importance of estimating public values for forest protection in terms of heterogeneous groups rather than as a homogeneous whole.     

Technology change as a policy response to promote changes in land management for environmental benefits

A previous study developed a framework for choosing among groups of policy mechanisms for encouraging environmentally beneficial land-use change. The framework highlights that these choices should depend on the relative levels of private (or internal) net benefits, and public (or external) net benefits. Incentive-based mechanisms (polluter-pays and/or beneficiary-pays) and extension need to be targeted carefully to appropriate projects—where private net benefits are close to zero, and/or public net benefits are more extremely positive or negative. This article focuses on policy mechanisms that alter the net benefits of changing land management, including R&D to develop new technologies, and training to improve the skill of landholders at using existing technologies. These policy options are now treated more comprehensively within the public benefits: private benefits framework. Benefits of technology-change projects can include reductions in the opportunity cost of compliance with environmental programs, increases in the public benefits of a particular type of land-use change, or improvements in private net benefits, resulting in public benefits through greater or more rapid adoption by private landholders. From an environmental management perspective, technology development is most relevant where public net benefits of land use change are positive and private net benefits are negative, but not highly negative. There is a set of projects for which technology change is the only viable alternative to no action, highlighting the importance of technology change in these cases.     

Rewarding carbon sequestration in South-Western French forests: A costly operation?

The extension of rotation lengths in forests has been proposed as an option for increasing carbon storage and contributing to climate change mitigation. This paper presents the results of a case study conducted on forests located in the southwest of France. The aim of this research was to assess the cost effectiveness of a subsidy/tax system on carbon fluxes. First, it is shown that such a mechanism leads forest owners to extend rotation lengths. However, cost effectiveness analysis shows that: (1) marginal social costs are more expensive than the private marginal costs of carbon sequestration; (2) marginal costs are higher when carbon stocks are discounted, ranging from 170.1 €/tC to 719.8 €/tC with discounted carbon stocks; and from 38.8 €/tC to 78.4 €/tC with undiscounted carbon stocks; (3) marginal costs are in the range of measures of the social value of carbon for France; (4) marginal costs increase with timber prices and increase with discount rate.     

A Holistic vs. an Attribute‐based Approach to Agri‐Environmental Policy Valuation: Do Welfare Estimates Differ?

Different economic valuation methodologies can be used to value the non‐market benefits of an agri‐environmental scheme. In particular, the non‐market value can be examined by assessing the public’s willingness to pay for the policy outputs as a whole or by modelling the preferences of society for the component attributes of the rural landscape that result from the implementation of the policy. In this article we examine whether the welfare values estimated for an agri‐environmental policy are significantly different between an holistic valuation methodology (using contingent valuation) and an attribute‐based valuation methodology (choice experiment). It is argued that the valuation methodology chosen should be based on whether or not the overall objective is the valuation of the agri‐environment policy package in its entirety or the valuation of each of the policy’s distinct environmental outputs.     

Financial optimisation of forest-level harvest scheduling in Ireland – A case study

World-wide, forest managers have long recognised the benefits of using optimisation-based modelling techniques to improve decision-making. With no such systems in operation in Irish forestry, optimisation-based economic models were developed for harvest scheduling on a forest level within the context of a hierarchical approach. These new techniques were compared to those currently employed by Coillte Teoranta (the Irish Forestry Board). The development of the optimisation models involved the evaluation of: different management options strategies, optimisation techniques, model types and constraint strategies. Evaluation of the models was carried out in Clonbrock forest (294.8 ha), a typical Irish plantation forest, owned and managed by Coillte. The application of the selected model resulted in an increase in net present value (NPV) over the 5-year planning period of 14.2% compared to the NPV produced by Coillte's current process.     

Extending the framework of the economic evaluation of erosion control actions in Mediterranean basins

Traditionally, the benefits of erosion control projects in Mediterranean watersheds were valued by the replacement cost method (RCM). Nowadays, however, environmental economics has provided alternative methods, such as contingent valuation (CV) and others based on stated preferences, the main strength of which is their capacity to capture non-use and future use values, which are essential for the monetary valuation of erosion. This study uses CV to estimate the externalities associated with watershed restoration and erosion control projects conducted in the Aljibe Basin (Almería, Spain). Comparison shows that CV estimates of net environmental benefits are almost double those obtained using standard methods. Thus, the project meets the profitability criteria in the former case but not in the latter. In concrete terms, the Internal Rates of Return are 5.23% versus 2.25%, respectively. The above shows CV to be a useful tool for estimating the social-environmental return on investment in this kind of project. However, as the experimental phase of this study shows, CV is not without certain issues and limitations, the majority of which derive from its hypothetical nature. Moreover, being preference-based, it may be more coherent with a cost-benefit analysis approach. The RCM, on the other hand, is highly detailed in technical terms and, by using physical data, produces more objective results. The two can therefore be considered complementary rather than competing methods, since they view the valuation from different perspectives.     

Accounting for Negative,Zero and Positive Willingness to Pay for Landscape Change in a National Park

In contingent valuation, despite the fact that many externalities manifest themselves as costs to some and benefits to others, most studies restrict willingness to pay to being non‐negative. In this paper, we investigate the impact of allowing for negative, zero and positive preferences for prospective changes in woodland cover in two UK national parks, the Lake District and the Trossachs. An extended spike model is used to accomplish this. The policy implications of not allowing for negative values in terms of aggregate benefits are also investigated, by comparing the extended spike model with a simple spike making use of only zero and positive bids, and a model which considers positive bids only. We find that ignoring negative values over‐states the aggregate benefits of a woodland planting project by up to 44%.     

Assessing the Forecasting Performance of a Generic Bio‐Economic Farm Model Calibrated With Two Different PMP Variants

Using linear programming in bio‐economic farm modelling often results in overspecialised model solutions. The positive mathematical programming (PMP) approach guarantees exact calibration to base year data but the forecasting capacity of the model is affected by necessary but arbitrary assumptions imposed during calibration. In this article, a new PMP variant is presented which is based on less arbitrary assumptions that, from a theoretical point of view, are closer to the actual decision making of the farmer. The PMP variant is evaluated according to the predictions of the bio‐economic farm model, developed within the framework for integrated assessment of agricultural systems in Europe (SEAMLESS). The forecasting capacity of the model calibrated with the standard PMP approach and the alternative PMP variant, respectively, is tested in ex‐post experiments for the arable farm types of Flevoland (the Netherlands) and Midi‐Pyrenees (France). The results of the ex‐post experiments, in which we try to simulate farm responses in 2003 using a model calibrated to 1999 data, show that the alternative PMP variant improves the forecasting capacity of the model in all tested cases.     

我国林权抵押贷款研究综述

通过对2003年以后我国的林权抵押贷款相关文献的梳理归整,重点对林权抵押贷款中涉及的理论基础、森林资源资产评估、贷款模式进行分析总结,对不同的森林资源所对应的资产评估和贷款模式进行了分类汇总。在林权抵押贷款实证研究汇总中,对林权抵押贷款的主要运行模式及其内容或特征进行了重点分析。讨论了目前关于林权抵押贷款研究存在的主要问题,认为我国林权抵押贷款的研究在基础理论、森林资源资产评估体系建立、抵押贷款的模式创新以及众学者提出的问题和对策针对性方面均有所欠缺,并提出了相应建议。     

Estimating overall returns to international agricultural research in Africa through benefit-cost analysis: a "best-evidence" approach

This study offers a "best evidence" approach to summarizing recent benefit-cost analyses of international agricultural research in Africa. First, from an extensive literature review and the resulting global inventory of impact studies, 23 studies are identified that calculate aggregate rates of return for Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and partner investments in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). These studies are then appraised against a review framework consisting of principles, criteria, and indicators for study rigor. Subsequently, the economic benefits reported by studies grouped on the basis of its analytical rigor are aggregated and set against total investment by the CGIAR and national agricultural research systems to determine if the total investment to date can be justified by documented benefits under a range of assumptions. As a result, the study finds that aggregate investment is justified under a fairly wide range of suppositions. Under all scenarios, the vast majority of documented benefits stem from a relatively limited array of activities with a majority of benefits stemming from biological control (80%). Close to 20% of total benefits result from crop genetic improvement, and less than 1% result from all other activities. The implications of these results for research investment strategies in SSA and impact assessment are discussed.     

Can process-based modelling and economic valuation of ecosystem services inform land management policy at a catchment scale?

Land produces a range of benefits, from ecosystem services, but markets only incentivise the production of a small proportion of them. The Ecosystem Approach develops plans for moving towards a more optimal mix. This requires stakeholders to understand the value of ecosystem services and how these values change with land-use and management. We investigate whether process-based modelling and economic valuation can help stakeholders to do this. We do this by applying these tools to a plan to improve ecosystem services delivery in a catchment. To be used in decision-support, analytical approaches need to be relatively inexpensive and rapid, and our analysis was deliberately constrained in this way. Two 25-year future scenarios were developed and compared against a baseline scenario. The first Designated Site scenario was based on enhancing the condition of nationally important nature conservation sites. The second, Ecosystem Services scenario, represented implementing the ecosystem services delivery plan. We modelled the change between the scenarios with an internationally recognised process based ecosystem services toolkit (the Land Use Capability Indicator, LUCI tool) and used the model outputs to inform economic valuation methods. Our selection of which ecosystem services to model and value were initially identified through a participatory approach. However those we could quantify was limited by evidence and data availability. We assessed changes in water quality (phosphorus load), sediment generation, carbon storage and flood regulation. We were able to put economic values on only carbon sequestration and flood regulation. Both the modelling results and the experience of applying the linked modelling-valuation approach are examined in the discussion to consider the limitations to the current usefulness of linking process based modelling to economic valuation for informing land management policy. We explore the origin and nature of these limitations and the key bottlenecks that need to be overcome, applicable to its use in other sites, regions and countries. This includes the availability of suitable coefficients and/or underlying data/evidence to parameterise the model, and the compatibility of model outputs with available economic valuation evidence (for value transfer).     

Assessing the financial contribution and carbon emission pattern of provisioning ecosystem services in Siwalik forests in Nepal: Valuation from the perspectives of disaggregated users

Provisioning Ecosystem Services (PS) from the forests contribute much to peoples’ livelihoods as well as to the national economy. Previous studies have been constrained by their primary focus on biophysical quantification of PS through modelling and mapping or aggregated monetary valuation, while little attention has been paid to the issues of the distribution of financial benefits among the different forest subgroups. Using market price and substitute good price methods, this paper assesses how local users exploit financial benefits and emit carbon from the use of PS in two dominant community-based forest management systems (community forestry—CF and collaborative forestry—CFM) based on proximity (nearby vs. distant users) and socio-economic class (rich vs. poor users) in the Siwalik region, Nepal. Results indicated that the wealth level of the users plays a key role in the amount of financial benefits generated from the use of PS: (1) users living near forests receive the highest economic benefits compared to those living long distances from the forest area. However the distribution of benefits differs according to management modality and socioeconomic status; (2) CF users, on average, receive higher economic benefits than CFM users; and (3) compared to poor households, rich households receive higher benefits. On average, a rich household adjacent to CF receives USD 1214/year while a poor household living in the same area receives almost half of that (USD 630/year). Similarly, a poor household living far from a forest area generates USD 189/year, slightly higher than that of a rich household in the same area (USD 109/year); and (4) an average CF user emits more carbon (7.4 tCO₂/HH/year) from the consumption of PS than an average CFM user (5 tCO₂/HH/year). Finally, we discuss the reasons behind these differences and draw policy implications for developing and refining constitutions and operational plans of forest user groups.     

Modeling producer responses with dynamic programming: a case for adaptive crop management

Past research found agricultural producers’ conditional responses during the growing season are important adaptations to weather and other stochastic events. Failing to recognize these responses overstates the risks confronting producers and understates their ability to respond to adverse circumstances. Dynamic programming (DP) provides a means for determining optimal long‐term crop management plans. However, most applications in the literature base their analysis on annual time steps with fixed strategies within the year, effectively ignoring conditional responses during the year. We suggest an alternative approach that captures the strategic responses within a cropping season to random weather variables as they unfold, reflecting farmers’ ability to adapt to weather realizations. We illustrate our approach by applying it to a typical cereal farm in Karak, Jordan. The results show that including conditional within‐year responses to weather reduces the frequency of fallowing by 23% and increases expected income by 9%.     

Social and cultural determinants of collective management of community forest in Nepal

The main goal of the study is to determine which socio-economic factors affect level of participation in the community forest management of “Ludhi-Damgade” of Gorkha district in Nepal. The empirical evidence for level of participation as a function of social status is obtained by using an ordered probit and two-stage least-squares model. The model also estimates the marginal effects of socio-economic factors on different levels of participation suggesting how per unit change in such socio-economic characters affects the level of participation. Empirical results from the model also verify that participation in forest management determines the quantity and type of benefits received from the community forest. The research findings of the study suggest that participation in community forest management is based on the socio-economic profile of an individual and the level of participation is determined by the benefits obtained from the common forest resources. Lack of participation in community forest management excludes the disadvantaged groups from decision-making in product distribution. Consequently, the disadvantaged groups get less benefit from the community forest. The empirical results are expected to aid policy makers in empowering people of lower socio-economic status to understand the importance of participation in community forest management in order to have equal distribution of benefits accrued by community forest.     

Determinants and impact of sustainable land management (SLM) investments: A systems evaluation in the Blue Nile Basin,Ethiopia

Ongoing debate over water management along the Blue Nile and land degradation in Ethiopia emphasizes the need for efficiency gains in agricultural production through sustainable land management (SLM). However, previous SLM studies overlook the tradeoffs involved in maintaining SLM investments over time. We address this limitation by combining a household survey that evaluates the economic impacts of SLM investments and maintenance, with a hydrological model that explores location‐specific infrastructure effects. We then use a multi‐market model to evaluate the impacts of alternative SLM investments on agricultural production, prices, and incomes over time. Analysis suggests SLM investments must be maintained for at least seven years to show significant increases in value of production, and that terraces on moderate and steep slopes are most effective in increasing agricultural yields. However, the benefits of terracing do not outweigh the cost of foregone off‐farm labor opportunities, nor compensate for lower agricultural prices from increased supply. Thus, SLM investments must be paired with other input and infrastructure investments, as well as subsidies for initial labor costs, in order to incentivize adoption and long‐term SLM maintenance.     

An economic approach to soil fertility management for wheat production in north-eastern Australia

Soil fertility decline and soil management for crop production are important economic issues for grain growers in north-eastern Australia. In that region, there is evidence of soil fertility decline which is attributed to past crop management practices. The questions addressed in this article are first, whether components of soil fertility can be improved by better management and second, by how much soil fertility would change. Soil fertility for crop production is considered in terms of soil organic carbon and nitrogen. A stochastic dynamic economic analysis of soil fertility management for wheat production is presented. A sequential analysis of first deriving the optimal nitrogen stock and application rates is followed by an assessment of tillage, stubble, and fertilizer strategies to obtain an optimal level of soil organic carbon. The recommended management practices are consistent with emerging management trends in the region. The derivation of optimal levels of soil fertility for agricultural purposes has other policy implications, which we discuss.