Trends in residential segregation by race: 1960–1970

The study examines trends in the level of residential segregation by race in U.S. metropolitan areas. It finds that the majority of housing markets experienced an increase in segregation between 1960 and 1970. Established racial patterns were typically maintained, with black population growth accommodated by the peripheral expansion of minority areas. This general pattern of development occurred in both high- and low-income neighborhoods, and typically left the average black with fewer whites as neighbors. Although the average white was at the same time exposed to a slightly higher proportion of blacks, the vast majority of urban whites continued to live in racially segregated neighborhoods.     

Tiebout choice and residential segregation by race in US metropolitan areas, 1980–2000

This article examines the link between local government fragmentation, or “Tiebout choice,” and segregation between black and white residents. As suggested by Tiebout [Tiebout, C., 1956. A pure theory of local public expenditures. Journal of Political Economy 64, 416–424.], fragmented local governance structures may encourage households to vote with their feet and sort into communities based on their willingness to pay for local public services. This outcome has been well documented. The nuance explored here is that, if the demand for local public services varies by race or if households have preferences for neighbors with specific racial characteristics, local government fragmentation may foster an increase in residential segregation by race across neighborhoods and jurisdictions. Results from metropolitan-level regressions suggest that increased Tiebout choice is associated with increases in black–white residential segregation within US metropolitan areas. Comparable results are obtained from household-level estimates, where the black racial composition of a household's census tract of residence is regressed on household-level controls and racially stratified measures of Tiebout choice. Results from both approaches suggest that a 10% increase in Tiebout choice would increase neighborhood segregation by no more than 1%, while segregation across jurisdictions would increase by between 4% and 7%.     

The Effects of local Fair Housing Ordinances on Housing Segregation: Their Impact Is Small, But It's an Important Positive Change Toward Integration

Abstract . State and local fair housing ordinances, patterned after federal legislation, are promoted by federal policy. This study investigates whether these local laws have had any effect on levels of residential segregation between Whites and Blacks, 1970-1980, by comparing changes in segregation for 111 cities characterized by different types of fair housing coverage. Results show average declines of 9 points in the index of dissimilarity, with cities covered by both state and local laws declining slightly more than cities with no fair housing coverage. Declines are not greater in cities with laws that are “substantially equivalent” to Title VIII vs. cities with non-equivalent laws. When changes in segregation were examined by a variety of population, economic and housing variables that may affect segregation change, it was found that local ordinances continue to have a small, but statistically significant effect. This effect varies according to the pattern of segregation change under study; deconcentration of ghetto areas and integration of White areas are not affected by type of local fair housing coverage.     

The baby boom,the baby bust,and the housing market

This paper explores the impact of demographic changes on the housing market in the US, 1st by reviewing the facts about the Baby Boom, 2nd by linking age and housing demand using census data for 1970 and 1980, 3rd by computing the effect of demand on price of housing and on the quantity of residential capital, and last by constructing a theoretical model to plot the predictability of the jump in demand caused by the Baby Boom. The Baby Boom in the U.S. lasted from 1946-1964, with a peak in 1957 when 4.3 million babies were born. In 1980 19.7% of the population were aged 20-30, compared to 13.3% in 1960. Demand for housing was modeled for a given household from census data, resulting in the finding that demand rises sharply at age 20-30, then declines after age 40 by 1% per year. Thus between 1970 and 1980 the real value of housing for an adult at any given age jumped 50%, while the real disposable personal income per capita rose 22%. The structure of demand is such that the swelling in the rate of growth in housing demand peaked in 1980, with a rate of 1.66% per year. Housing demand and real price of housing were highly correlated and inelastic. If this relationship holds in the future, the real price of housing should fall about 3% per year, or 47% by 2007. The theoretical model, a variation of the Poterba model, ignoring inflation and taxation, suggests that fluctuations in prices caused by changes in demand are not foreseen by the market, even though they are predictable in principle 20 years in advance. As the effects of falling housing prices become apparent, there may be a potential for economic instability, but people may be induced to save more because their homes will no longer provide the funds for retirement.     

Desegregation and Integration as Linked or Distinct? Evidence from a Previously ‘White’ Suburb in Post‐apartheid Cape Town

This article analyses whether the physical desegregation of a residential neighbourhood ultimately facilitates the social integration of its residents. Desegregation is measured quantitatively (i.e. using census data for a suburb in which no single race comprises more than 50% and at least one other racial group comprises 25%), and social integration is assessed qualitatively using indicators such as friendship, common local identity, sharing local facilities and involvement in local institutions. Essentially this research is concerned with whether labelling a suburb ‘desegregated’ is a superficial term that whilst implying racial mixing actually masks social segregation; and also whether assumptions that urban policies of desegregation ultimately facilitate social integration are accurate. This desegregation/integration nexus is explored by examining the lives of residents of a desegregated Cape Town neighbourhood. South Africa provides a timely context because the legacy of apartheid’s spatial and social design continues to dominate the urban scene despite policy efforts to promote both desegregation and integration.     

Ethnic Competition for Residential Space in Miami, Florida, 1970–80

A bstract . Between 1970 and 1980 the Hispanic population of Miami had a phenomenal rate of growth while the Black population also grew rapidly. The non-Hispanic White population actually experienced a numerical decline. The Hispanic population of the city has been highly successful in improving its economic well-being and has been able to penetrate deeply into non-Hispanic White neighborhoods throughout the city. Blacks have not been able to increase their economic well-being as greatly and their expansion has been confined largely to neighborhoods adjacent to older Black neighborhoods. Non-Hispanic White neighborhoods shrank considerably in area during the decade and today are mainly found on Miami Beach , in northeast Miami and the far south of the city. If large scale Hispanic migration continues, and the Black population maintains its rate of growth, by 1990 Miami will likely have an even smaller non-Hispanic White population than today and be ethnically more segregated.     

The interaction of residential segregation and employment discrimination

This paper seeks to disentangle the impact of residential segregation from that of employment discrimination in determining black employment share. The major finding is that distance of a workplace from the main ghetto is one of the strongest and most significant determinants of both changes over time and levels of the racial composition of the workforce. This paper presents evidence of more heterogeneous micro labor supply within SMSAs than has usually been recognized for policy purposes. Comparing Chicago with Los Angeles, we find that distance from the ghetto has a stronger impact in Chicago, and that this effect increased during the late 1970s. By contrast, residential segregation is relatively less important in determining workplace demographics in Los Angeles, despite its rudimentary public transit system and prototypical job dispersion. In both cities, residential segregation strongly influences black employment patterns and limits the efficacy of efforts to integrate the workplace.     

Urban Geographies of Hesitant Transition: Tracing Socioeconomic Segregation in Post‐Ceauşescu Bucharest

Scholars have raised concerns about the social costs of the transition from state socialism to capitalism in Central and Eastern Europe, and geographers are particularly interested in the spatial expressions and implications of these costs, including apparently increasing residential segregation. Applying a range of segregation measures to 1992 and 2002 census data, this contribution studies socio‐occupational residential segregation in Bucharest. The conclusion is that Bucharest was relatively socio‐spatially mixed at both times; in fact, a modest, yet fully legible, decreasing overall trend is observable. This is at odds with many popular assumptions of the past 20 years.     

The spatial structure of Latin American cities

"Using published census data, metropolitan area population and employment statistics are constructed for several large Latin American cities in 1950, 1960, and 1970, and compared to similar statistics from selected North American cities. The Latin cities are experiencing decentralization of population and some decentralization of employment. Overall population density patterns of large Latin cities resemble those in older North American cities; newer North American cities have lower densities and are much more decentralized than Latin cities. High-status groups are somewhat concentrated in the central cities of Latin American metropolitan areas, but their concentrations there are declining."     

Distributional Effects of Monetary and Fiscal Policy: Impacts on Unemployment Rates Disaggregated By Race and Gender

A bstract . The use of vectorautoregression techniques provides empirical verification that monetary and fiscal policies do not have equal impacts on unemployment rates disaggregated by race and gender. In general, it was found that white males benefited from macro-policies more than any other category. However, black females were also shown to benefit significantly. Results were reported from both the 1970s and 1980s and indicate that these differential unemployment rate responses became magnified during the 1980s. The results for white males are consistent with a number of theories that have been offered by several writers, but the results for black females might seem, at first, to be difficult to explain. However, a close inspection of educational attainment scotes for black women over recent decades reveals a potential source of this finding.     

Population and employment densities: structure and change

"We examine spatial patterns and their changes during the 1970s for the Los Angeles region, by estimating monocentric and polycentric density functions for employment and population. Downtown Los Angeles is clearly identified as the statistical monocentric center of the region, and it is the most consistently strong center in the polycentric patterns. Polycentric models fit statistically better than monocentric models, and there was some shift in employment distribution toward a more polycentric pattern. These findings verify the existence of polycentricity in Los Angeles and demonstrate for the first time that employment and especially population follow a polycentric pattern based on exogenously defined employment centers. The results confirm that both employment and population became more dispersed during the 1970s."     

Vertical and Horizontal Segregation: Spatial Class Divisions in Oslo, 1970–2003

A direct focus on social class has largely disappeared from questions concerning spatial divisions. Instead, studies on residential segregation usually focus on ethnicity, education or income; seemingly the common perception is that people are now divided by such factors and that class divisions belong to the past. Although the structures of inequality have changed in recent times, little is known about how they affect spatial divisions. Here, we investigate these issues by analysing the developments of class segregation in Norway's capital, Oslo, during a period of great societal change and welfare state expansion. We analyse both vertical segregation, between the upper class and the working class, and horizontal segregation, between class factions possessing a high level of mainly cultural or economic capital. We apply a Bourdieu‐inspired classification scheme to capture data on the parents of full cohorts of children aged 13–15 years in 1970, 1980 and 2003. The results support the idea of a changed class structure, with segregation levels between the upper and working classes having increased during this period. Moreover, there are also moderate and slightly increasing levels of horizontal segregation between top class factions based on cultural and economic capital.     

Residential mobility and housing tenure choice

This paper treats housing tenure choice and residential moves as joint decisions. The parameters of a semi-Markov model with two states, renting and owning and continuous time, length of stay, are estimated with data from the U.S. Panel Study of Income Dynamics for 1970–1980. Several distributional assumptions for residence spells confirm the basic role played by housing prices, wealth and other characteristics. Higher wealth implies higher likelihood of owning higher mobility for renters and lower for owners. Households with educated hands are more mobile. Housing modal prices may have statistically very significant coefficients, but not always as anticipated.     

Racial residential segregation in multiple neighborhood markets: a dynamic sorting study

Journal of Economic Interaction and Coordination - Various degrees of residential segregation by income and race generally exist in U.S. cities. This study extends Sethi and Somanathan’s...     

Ethnic Disparities in Neighbourhood Selection: Understanding the Role of Income

Resurgent fears that segregation could undermine the cohesion, prosperity and security of British society require re‐examining how ethnicity and economic resources interact to structure the types of neighbourhoods people relocate to when they move. This article uses the United Kingdom Household Longitudinal Study and 2011 census data to assess how ethnicity and income intersect to stratify the ethnic and socio‐economic composition of the neighbourhoods people move to in England and Wales. The results suggest that greater access to resources allows people from most ethnic groups to act on shared residential preferences by moving to more advantaged locales. Furthermore, higher incomes accelerate ethnic deconcentration by carrying Asians into neighbourhoods with a greater share of White Britons. However, there is also considerable inertia and ethnic inequality in neighbourhood destinations. The geography of local opportunity structures constrains the types of neighbourhood people relocate to and ethnic minorities tend to move to less advantaged neighbourhoods than their White British peers. Although Britain is not ‘sleepwalking to segregation’, there are persistent ethnic and socio‐economic disparities in neighbourhood outcomes.     

Efficient employment of cohorts of labor in the U.S. economy: An illustration of a method

This paper presents a model for the analysis of efficient labor force participation in the U.S. economy. Ridge regression estimates of the elasticities of cohorts of labor, classified by sex and occupation, are used in conjunction with wage data to illustrate the derivation of efficient allocation of labor cohorts in five economic sectors. These efficient constructs are compared with actual census data for 1960 and 1970. The results, while tentative, show a trend toward more efficient utilization of labor and greater participation by women in the work force.     

Controlling the Urban Fabric: The Complex Game of Distance and Proximity in European Upper‐Middle‐Class Residential Strategies

This article presents an open discussion of the processes of urban secession and gentrification in contemporary European cities, arguing that intergroup social dynamics in urban spaces are generally more complex than either extreme mutual avoidance or the colonization of neighbourhoods by the wealthiest groups. We analyse the residential strategies of urban upper‐middle class managers in various European metropolitan areas through in‐depth semi‐structured interviews to argue that these groups develop complex strategies of proximity and distance in relation to other social groups. The development of these ‘partial exit’ strategies takes place through specific combinations of practices that allow groups to select the dimensions they are willing to share with other social groups, and those in which they prefer a more segregated social environment for themselves and their families. The responses of our interviewees were consistently more nuanced and complex than suggested by a simplistic theory about their drive to withdraw from society, forcing us to develop more sophisticated conceptual frameworks to account for the growing prevalence of multi‐layered identities and spheres of reference and solidarity, specific combinations of elective segregation and local involvement, and more active patterns of mobility combined with local embeddedness.     

Urban residential growth under perfect foresight

This paper reformulates Brueckner's model of residential succession and tests the predictive capability of two discriminant models. Model A uses the Brueckner variables, and Model B is Model A plus two urban renewal variables and a variable measuring the direction of residential succession in the previous decade. Empirical tests are based on a composite set of census tracts within the City of Pittsburgh, 1950–1960 and 1960–1970. Inclusion of the additional variables and disaggregation of the model by relative income position within the central city (Low, Moderate, Middle, and High) adds a new policy dimension by increasing the predictive capability of the model by about one-third for all central city tracts and nearly three-fourths for moderate income tracts.     

大城市开发区流动人口居住特征研究--以上海浦东新区为例

主要采用第五次人口普查数据,对上海开发区--浦东新区流动人口的居住状况进行分析和研究.研究表明流动人口在大城市具有明显的非居民化的居住特征,表现在居住场所集中于城市边缘,居住地更换频繁,居住质量差和居民身份认同感缺乏.为了保障流动人口在大城市的居住健康和大城市整体的健康发展,促进流动人口在城市的居住和谐,有必要采取措施,推进区域产业结构升级,调控城市人口规模,制定流动人口的居住标准,提升住房质量;增进流动人口的居民身份认同,;逐步取消户籍制度,增进本地人口与外来人口的居住融合.     

Residential segregation and preference misalignment

This paper studies the role of disparities in neighborhood composition preferences in perpetuating residential segregation. Evidence from the Multi-city study of urban inequality (MCSUI) suggests that it would be impossible to simultaneously sort White, Black, Asian, and Hispanic households into neighborhoods that match their stated ideal. Simulations suggest that rearranging blocks in US metropolitan areas to match preferences stated by Black MCSUI respondents would involve moving 36% of the Black population to a block with a lower concentration of Black neighbors and 6% of the Black population to a block with a higher concentration of Black neighbors.