The Role of the Budget in Medium and Large UK Companies and the Relationship with Budget Pressure and Participation

This study examines the perceived and desired role of the budget in thirteen medium or large UK companies, where the budget was usually perceived as a forecast of future performance although in all companies there was a minority who perceived a target element. The budget was generally used as a control device by means of calculating and investigating variances. Further, pressure to meet the budget came most strongly from the individual, not senior management or accountants. In fact, greater pressure was considered beneficial and no dysfunctional consequences from budget pressure were apparent. There was only limited participation in the budget-setting process and there was a general desire for more. No systematic explanation of the different responses between companies was found but convincing company-specific explanations were discovered. Some interesting differences between US and UK practice were observed.     

Antecedents of Budget Participation: Leadership Style,Information Asymmetry,and Evaluative Use of Budget

This study explores the causes or antecedents of budget participation to understand more fully the role of participation in the workplace. The study focuses on the reasons why superiors encourage the budget participation of their subordinates and draws upon several theoretical perspectives including leadership theory, agency theory and organizational justice. To examine the issues, a survey was administered to managers and supervisors in several companies. Results of path analysis suggest that superiors encourage subordinate participation when the superior's leadership style is considerate. This implies that budget participation may mediate the relation between leadership style and work outcomes. Results also suggest that superiors encourage participation when budget goals are used in the performance evaluation of subordinates, in which case, the study argues, the superiors encourage participation because of concerns about organizational justice. This finding implies that budget participation may mediate the relation between the evaluative use of budget and those work outcomes that prior research has linked to organizational justice. The proposed relation between information asymmetry and budget participation is not supported.     

高等学校预算管理中的预算松弛问题研究

预算管理作为高等学校内部管理的重要组成部分,越来越受到人们的重视.然而预算管理在高等学校普遍认同并加以实施的过程中,其效果并非尽如人意,还存在许多问题.预算松弛问题就是高等学校预算管理中的一个主要问题,它是高等学校预算管理中的一种常见现象.预算松弛的存在对高等学校的预算管理既有积极的一面,也有负面的影响,预算松弛积极作...     

The strategic competence of accountants and middle managers in budget making

This paper aims to advance the notion of the “situated functionality of numbers” (Ahrens & Chapman, 2007) by investigating the practical knowledge of strategy which shapes the calculations performed by accountants and middle managers when they are making a budget. It proposes an in-depth investigation of the budgeting conversations collected during an extensive field study in a large construction firm that had undertaken a new partnership strategy. Drawing on a conversation analytical approach, it identifies three micro-practices of calculation constitutive of the accountants’ and middle managers’ strategic competence: invoking the usefulness of numbers to activate local projects; constructing the acceptability of numbers to report them to external partners; authorising the plausibility of numbers to reconcile local contingencies and global coherence. The paper then explores how accountants and middle managers come to a mutual understanding of their respective accountabilities when they perform their strategic competence. It ends by discussing the unintended consequences of these transformations in their professional roles.     

基于预算的考核、预算氛围和预算副效应

预算作为一种管理控制工具被广泛运用于实务,并有许多企业根据预算进行业绩考核。基于218个问卷样本,本文运用结构方程(SEM)研究了基于预算的考核执行、预算氛围和预算副作用之间的关系。结果表明,基于预算的考核执行与预算副作用正相关,预算氛围与预算副作用负相关。这表明严格的预算考核执行会带来副作用,而恰当的预算氛围可以降低副作用。该结论与权变理论的系统性适应相吻合,即在有较好预算氛围的公司,严格的预算考核执行更为适应,这类公司往往管理更规范。     

Managerial attitude,motivation and the effectiveness of budget participation

This study empirically examined the effect of budget participation on managerial performance using a contingency theory approach. Contingent variables investigated included managerial attitude (towards their job and company) and motivation (to work). The results indicated that both variables moderated the effect of budget participation. Specifically, participation in the budgeting process by managers who reported a more favourable attitude or motivation, was associated with improved performance; whereas participation by managers exhibiting a less favourable attitude or motivation, was associated with hampered performance. These results support the fundamental argument that an organization may be better off following a budgeting style (participative or non-participative) that is congruent with its employee attitude and motivation.     

Ritual legitimation, de-coupling and the budgetary process: managing organizational hypocrisies in a multinational company

The study of participation in the budgetary cycle has formed a prominent part of the research literature concerned with the budgetary process. More recently there has emerged a body of literature concerned with exploring the political and symbolic nature of the budgetary process. The paper reports upon the outcomes of an empirical study of the introduction of `budgetary participation' in a division of a European subsidiary of a large North American car manufacturer. We detail the long process of consultation and negotiation within the subsidiary, and between it and the European Headquarters. The study provides a revealing instance of the roles of formal budget participation as a ritual of control and legitimation without the substantive involvement of middle managers and suggested to us the introduction of de-coupling and organizational hypocrisy alongside the introduction of budget participation. The study pays close attention to the contingent effects of the wider political context of the division and the relationships between the division, its organizational context and organizational environment, and how this context played upon the budgetary process in the division. The outcomes that we analyse at `Delta' reflect the de-coupling strategies and organizational hypocrisies commonly found in public sector organizations. In this wider setting the corporation persists with the ritual of `tight' budget negotiation and target setting and apparent underachievement in performance. Yet we conclude that the complex technological and political context to the formation and siting of Delta continued and may continue to support its existence.$g0     

Budget Development and Use in Small‐ and Medium‐Sized Enterprises: A Field Investigation

We examine the process by which operating budgets are developed and how they are used for control, evaluation, and reward purposes in small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs). SMEs (i.e., fewer than 500 employees) represent the dominant organizational form in North America but surprisingly little research has examined how these companies develop and use management controls. Our study focuses on a key element of the management control system, operating budgets, because prior research on SMEs indicates this as an important and commonly used control tool in such companies. Prior research on budgeting practices, while extensive, has almost exclusively examined larger companies. We conduct in‐depth field interviews at 12 participating SMEs to address four theory‐based research questions intended to provide insights regarding the development and use of budgets by SMEs. Our first question examines how budgets are developed, top‐down versus collaborative. Our second, third, and fourth research questions examine, respectively, whether budgets are used tightly or loosely for results control, performance evaluation, and reward purposes. As a first step in providing a deeper understanding of budget development and use in SMEs, our results have implications for practice, theory development, and management accounting education.     

The effect of cost management knowledge on the relationship between budgetary participation and managerial performance

This study investigates the relationship between budget participation (BP), cost management knowledge and managerial performance. It draws on relevant previous research in the theory of work performance and accounting to formulate the research questions. Eighty-three managers from Finnish companies participated in the study. Data were collected from the managers using a mail questionnaire. The results indicate that managers’ cost management knowledge, and especially the balanced perspective of cost management knowledge, moderates the effect of BP on self-perception of managerial performance. It was specifically found that the effect of BP on perceived managerial performance becomes more positive when managers’ cost management knowledge increases. High perception of managerial performance is obtained when both the BP and managers’ cost management knowledge are high. Our results suggest that organizations should improve the cost management knowledge of managers who participate in the budgeting process.     

Suggestion and Assumption on Perfecting Budget Control System

预算管理体制是我国财税体制中的重要组成部分,预算管理的规范与完善直接影响着我国财税体制改革的进程。我国目前的预算管理体制存在诸多的不足,可以从完善立法、规范预算编制内容、采用科学的方法测算预算收支、提高预算的完整性和透明度、加强预算执行情况的信息反馈、增强预算的严肃性、强化公开信息等方面进行完善。     

Budgeting—the Role of Trust and Participation: A Research Note

Prior studies have found a combination of an evaluative style with high budget emphasis and high participation to be associated with better behavioural outcomes (e.g., lower job-related tension) than all other combinations of budget emphasis and participation. Yet there has been little research to investigate the theory on why this particular combination of budget emphasis and participation is associated with better behavioural outcomes. A path analytical model, which investigates the intervening effects of trust and participation on the relationship between budget emphasis and job-related tension, was used. Senior Norwegian managers were selected as subjects for this study. The results indicate that budget emphasis has an insignificant direct effect on job-related tension but a strong indirect effect through trust and participation. Trust also has an intervening effect on the relationship between budgetary participation and job-related tension. It is therefore possible to conclude that high budget emphasis is associated with high budgetary participation and high trust. High trust, in turn, is associated with reduced subordinates' job-related tension.     

Is management accounting just what management accountants do? Implicit cost analysis on Britain's railways c.1923-1939

This paper explores how railway companies performed the management accounting function during the first part of the twentieth century. It will be argued that only by understanding the relationship between management techniques and the business process can any judgement as to the quality of management decisions be reached. Through the medium of educational material, the development of train control and railway statistics is explored. It is argued that implicit marginal costing was obtained from non-financial information outside the realm of accounting. This was due to the specific conditions and complexity of operations faced by railway managers. This is then contrasted with the limited, and ultimately unsuccessful, attempts by accountants at the Railway Clearing House to cost services.     

How Top‐down and Bottom‐up Budgeting Affect Budget Slack and Performance through Social and Economic Exchange

This paper investigates the effects of a top‐down (TD) versus bottom‐up (BU) orientation in different stages of the budgetary target‐setting process on slack and managerial performance. We use social exchange theory to explain the outcomes of these alternative budgetary arrangements, and complement the traditional focus on budgetary participation in target setting with a process‐oriented perspective. We develop hypotheses predicting that TD and BU orientations in the subsequent stages of the budgeting process have different effects on managers’ exchange relationships with the firm, and their behavioural responses. Using survey evidence from German managers across 127 firms we find that a TD orientation in the issuance of guidelines enhances economic exchange and that a BU orientation in the development of the initial budget proposal enhances social exchange, which in turn are associated with reduced slack and higher performance, respectively.     

The Influence of the Accountant on British Business Performance From the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present Day

Britain has more professionally qualified accountants per capita than any of her leading economic rivals and they play a major role as advisers to British companies and take a disproportionate share of the jobs in top management. Unfortunately for the accountants, business historians, other academics, commentators and even contemporary politicians have almost universally noted this to be a bad thing. This article discusses whether this reputation is justified by assessing the past performance of professional accountants as business advisers and managers. Stereotypical criticisms of accountants in terms of excessive caution, their support for the holding company form, or seeing problems in narrow financial terms are found to be unjustified. The promotion of accountants to the top jobs can be seen as rational profit-maximizing behaviour by British companies and a recent survey has demonstrated the performance of accountants in top management in recent years to be superior to other professions such as engineers.     

Application of the delphi method in identifying characteristics big eight firms seek in entry-level accountants

A panel of Big Eight partners and managers participated in a three-round Delphi questionnaire during which they analyzed and refined a set of characteristics which they considered to be important for entry-level accountants. The panel concluded that a high grade point average, attendance at a quality university, attractive personality characteristics, participation and leadership in organizations, and a professional appearance and presence were the important characteristics they were seeking in entry-level accountants. Academic aptitude, all references, and membership in organizations were among the factors that most panel members considered to be of lesser importance.     

Teaching managerial responsibilities for internal controls: Perception gaps between accounting and management professors

An organization needs a proper managerial tone to maintain a sound control environment. However, managers cannot support a control environment they do not understand. This misunderstanding generates a perception gap between corporate managers and auditors concerning internal control responsibilities, which may extend to academia as well. This research examines the perceptions of accounting and management professors concerning the understanding of who is ultimately responsible for establishing and maintaining internal controls over financial reporting and finds a statistically significant difference of opinion between the two groups. A large number of management professors surveyed relegate this role to internal auditors instead of management. These findings indicate management professors may not be fully aware of the responsibilities placed on managers of publicly traded companies for internal controls over financial reporting by the Sarbanes–Oxley (SOX) Act of 2002. The survey also finds a statistically significant difference in the perceptions of accounting and management professors concerning where the topic of internal controls should be taught and who is most qualified to teach internal controls to non-accounting business majors. This disconnect between management and accounting professors could potentially generate a business curriculum that leaves non-accounting business majors with little or no exposure to the roles and responsibilities of managers concerning internal controls over financial reporting. This research highlights the important role of accounting professors to help minimize this disconnect and provides specific recommendations to improve the exposure necessary for non-accounting business majors.     

Brand value accounting: an international comparison of perceived managerial implications

Data concerned with the managerial implications of brand value accounting were collected from accountants and marketing managers working in strongly branded companies in New Zealand (N.Z.), the United Kingdom (U.K.) and the United States (U.S.). Since the external reporting climate in the U.S. prohibits the inclusion of brand value as a separate asset in the published balance sheet, it was anticipated that U.S. managers would be the least positively disposed to the potential of beneficial managerial implications deriving from brand valuation. Contrary to this expectation, managers in the U.K are the least positively disposed to potential managerial implications associated with brand value accounting. This result is particularly interesting as brand value accounting has commanded considerable attention from the U.K. accounting profession since the late 1980s when several large U.K. companies elected to capitalize brand values in their external financial statements. In addition to the international differences noted, the degree of commonality of findings across the three countries is also noteworthy. The data reported provide strong support for the view that there is considerable potential for positive managerial implications from brand value accounting.     

Practitioners’ Perspectives on the IPO Process and the Perils of Flotation

Abstract

A substantive literature examines the short- and long-run performance of share returns following an Initial Public Offering (IPO). However, the related issue of why companies seek to raise money through an IPO, or the factors that are important in this equity-issuing process, have attracted very little academic attention. The current paper seeks to redress this imbalance by investigating attitudes to these issues in the UK using two research methods: (i) a detailed questionnaire survey of companies that have recently undertaken an IPO; and (ii) interviews with managers and advisers who have been involved in the IPO process.     

Accounting benefits and satisfaction in an ERP environment

Over the past decade, organizations all over the world have adopted enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. There has been little research at a global scale regarding the accounting benefits of adopting enterprise systems. Moreover, there are virtually no studies that examine in detail the relation between accounting benefits and ERP user satisfaction. Sutton (2006) addressed the need for empirical research on the impact of ERP in terms of accounting advantages and disadvantages. The principal aim of our study was to investigate the accounting benefits that the adoption of an ERP system by companies may entail in relation to ERP user satisfaction. This study explored the impact that the ERP system has had on accounting information and practice. This study also examined whether or not there are differences between accountants and IT professionals concerning how each group assesses ERP accounting benefits and ERP user satisfaction. The participants of this study comprised 175 accountants and 96 IT professionals from 193 companies in Greece. The empirical evidence confirms a number of accounting benefits derived from ERP systems particularly for accounting process. No statistically significant differences were found between the perceptions of accountants and IT professionals concerning ERP accounting benefits. Furthermore, this research identifies factors related to accounting benefits and ERP cost which affect the level of ERP user satisfaction. The implications of these results for practice and research are explored. The findings of this study will be of value to any companies considering the inclusion of their accounting techniques and operations in an ERP system. Furthermore, the results of this study will provide stimulus for consequent research in the field in order to further examine and account for the accounting benefits that can occur from ERP system implementation as well as the effect of those benefits on ERP user satisfaction.     

A Corporate View of Research Needs in Corporate Finance

This paper reports the results of a survey of UK chief financial officers (CFOs) drawn from 72 large, 34 medium and 37 small companies on potentially important research topics in corporate finance. The paper suggests that there are gaps between extant academic research and the CFOs ‘needs for such research. The topics that the 143 CFOs would like to see on the research agenda include: the influence of tax laws on financial decision-making; investor reactions to companies concentrating on short-term gains to the almost total neglect of long-term benefits; effects of changes to the law on pension funds; cash flow planning and forecasting; regulators’ awareness of financial issues; and methods for determining the riskiness of a project. Of least importance to the CFOs are research on the significance of bankruptcy costs, influence of the City on corporate financial operations and impact of seasons on operational decisions. The degree of importance attributed to research topics seems to vary with firm size. In general, the findings of this study are similar to those from a survey of financial managers in the US.