The effects of scale in tourism projects in developing countries

The paper by Rodenburg (Annals VII:2:177–196) on the effect of scale in tourism development in Bali raises important questions relating to tourism development in Third World countries. One fundamental question is whether large-scale development is inevitable in such countries, or whether there is persuasive evidence to support smaller and craft scale enterprises. This article undertakes a critical review of Rodenburg's analysis and concludes that large scale developments are likely to be inevitable because of external economies of scale and market structures in international tourism, but that the consequences of such developments can be foreseen and therefore mitigated by appropriate pre-project planning.     

Toward a framework for tourism education: Problems and prospects

Jafari, Jafar, J. R. Brent Ritchie, Toward a Framework For Tourism Education: Problems and Prospects. Annals of Tourism Research 1981, VIII(1):13–34. The purpose of this article is to offer a framework for analysis and discussion of tourism education. It first adopts a definition of tourism within which interaction among its components and extraneous aspects are considered. Specifically, it addresses issues related to travelers, tourism goods and services, socio-physical factors, and the host-guest relationship. Second, it discusses some social science disciplines relevant to the study of tourism, with reference to some methods of research and teaching of tourism. Finally, the article moves on to present some other issues pertinent to curriculum development in tourism. Throughout the paper, a number of questions are raised and attempts are made to point out some critical issues in tourism education.     

Social planning for tourism in the developing countries

The usual perspectives on tourism planning have been economic. This paper argues for the need to take much more explicit account of non-economic costs (and benefits) in this field, and links the discussion to questions that have preoccupied those concerned with general issues of development in recent years. It emphasises that planners act in specific socio-politocal contexts, and that it is especially the dynamics of class structures and theis expression in the power relations at local and national levels which influence outcomes in this field. Practical issues of social planning for tourism are discussed, and the dangers of development which is too massive and too fast are stressed. Some attention is also paid to the role of transnational enterprises in the tourism field, and to the question of bargaining at the international level.     

Assessing tourism's more complex consequences

Runyan, Dean and Chung-Tong Wu, “Assessing Tourism's more Complex Consequences,” Annals of Tourism Research, October/December 1979, VI(4):448–463. The development of tourism can have extensive physical, social and economic impacts. Certain of these impacts can be classified as relatively complex: those that take many variables to describe, are difficult to quantify and which are sensitive to policy or other difficult-to-predict interventions. The involvement of residents in an impact estimation process can serve to both forecast and appraise these relatively complex impacts. Relatively few techniques are available for estimation of complex impacts which do not rely almost exclusively on the intuition of professionals. Those that make use of lay individual input include Delbecq procedures, Delphi and IMPASSE. These techniques can be used to identify potential impacts by structuring group discussions. A two-stage approach to estimating complex impacts is proposed.     

Tourists,black markets and regional development in West Africa

Currency brought into West Africa by tourists is strong support for black market operations. The positive as well as the negative effects of illicit currency exchanges are evaluated for their social and economic significance for the region. The black market is not only an index of economic conditions, but is important for individual and group survival and the maintenance of social structure in countries having long term weakened economies. Anthroplogical data provides Third World planners a broadened base for decisions dealing with the role of tourism in regional development.     

Spirituality and corporate social responsibility: an empirical narrative from the Balinese tourism industry

The emerging body of knowledge has indicated the positive relationship between spirituality and corporate social responsibility (CSR), yet our understanding of how spirituality can play a role in CSR in general, and in tourism in particular, remains limited. This research takes a qualitative case study approach to the role of spirituality-inspired CSR by providing an empirical investigation of tourism businesses in Bali, Indonesia, where the Hindu based Tri Hita Karana philosophy drives its cultural identity. A total of 20 qualitative interviews and two focus groups were conducted with Bali tourism stakeholders including businesses, government, community and NGOs. The findings show that spirituality plays an important role in CSR in Balinese tourism in three dimensions, namely (1) as a key element of the broader social and cultural context to create a conducive external environment for CSR; (2) as a CSR driver to inspire business leaders; and (3) as a complement to CSR governance, though with limitations. This research contributes to the literature by providing an empirical narrative that demonstrates strong multi-layered links between spirituality and CSR and the implications for tourism destinations in spirituality-oriented cultures.     

The tourist art market as a factor in social change

Richter, Dolores. “The Tourist Art Market as a Factor in Social Change,” Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. V, No. 3, July/September 1978, pp.323–338. This paper disputes the theory that participation in the tourist art market has had limited economic impact on African artists. An analysis of social changes that have occured in the social organization of a group of traditional woodcarvers indicates that tourist art market participation is directly responsible for significant changes in many social institutions. It has also provided the economic means by which the carvers have been able to respond positively to government policies and regulations aimed at modernization.     

Values as determinants of motivation: Tourism and other career choices

Neuman, Yoram, Abraham Pizam and Arie Reichel, Values as Determinants of Motivation: Tourism and Other Career Choices. Annals of Tourism Research 1980, VII (3): 428–442. This study examined the predictive validity of work values in explaining motivational patterns of three groups of career preparation differing in their occupational specificity: Tourism/Hospitality, Management, and Liberal Arts. It was found that the higher the occupational specificity of a career preparation the higher is the predictive validity of work values in explaining work motivations. As predicted, the best relationships between values and motivation was found in the maximally specified occupation, namely: tourism/hospitality students, followed by management students with the liberal arts students — the most flexible occupational group — having the lowest relationship between values and motivation. The implications of the findings for employee selection and motivation prediction in the tourism/hospitality industry are discussed.     

Foreign travel and tourism prices and demand

Sunday, Alexander A., “Foreign Travel and Tourism Prices and Demand,” Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. V, No. 2, April/June 1978, pp. 268–273. Using regression analysis and panel data this study estimates the parameter effect of prices on American demand for foreign travel and tourism. Findings suggest that higher air fares generate fewer tourists but greater expenditure per tourist visit.     

Gaming can be sustainable too! Using Social Representation Theory to examine the moderating effects of tourism diversification on residents' tax paying behavior

Tourism authorities in the Las Vegas region have suggested the diversification of the tourism industry as a strategy to improve the vitality of rural communities outside of the metropolitan area. The present study uses Social Representation Theory as the conceptual basis to test the moderating effects of the various types of proposed tourism development on residents' willingness to pay higher taxes to support such development. A survey of 301 residents in Las Vegas rural communities examined how the factors of economic dependence on tourism, community attachment, and ecocentric attitude towards tourism influence residents' perceptions of tourism's impacts. A higher economic dependence on tourism and higher levels of community attachment led to more favorable perceptions of tourism's economic and social impacts. The economic impacts, in turn, resulted in a willingness to pay higher taxes, irrespective of the type of tourism development proposed by the Las Vegas authorities. The results suggest that rural communities reinforce a hegemonic social representation of tourism in order to characterize the ethos of capitalist urbanism that pervades the economic development discourse. The residents' social construction of tourism has important implications for tourism planners in the region and suggests the adoption of an inclusive tourism diversification strategy that leverages both gaming and alternative tourism.     

旅游企业社会责任对目的地形象及游客忠诚的影响研究

在旅游市场竞争日趋激烈的背景下,由旅游企业经营所引发的社会责任问题受到广泛关注,但学界关于旅游企业社会责任的影响研究还不够系统和深入.文章将旅游企业社会责任划分为6个方面,将目的地形象划分为认知形象和情感形象两个方面,并构建了旅游企业社会责任对目的地形象及游客忠诚的影响模型.实证研究表明,旅游企业社会责任在目的地形象及游客忠诚形成中发挥非常重要的作用,其中,经济责任、环境责任、游客责任、员工责任和法律责任对认知形象有正向影响,游客责任、员工责任和慈善责任对情感形象有正向影响;认知形象和情感形象不仅对游客忠诚产生直接影响,而且通过游客满意对游客忠诚产生间接作用.相比认知形象,情感形象对游客满意和忠诚的影响作用更大.     

Domestic tourism as a development factor

Archer, Brian H., “Domestic Tourism as a Development Factor”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. V, No. 1, January/March 1978, pp. 126–141. Domestic tourism brings about an intermingling of people from diverse social and cultural backgrounds and also a considerable redistribution of spending power. Although this paper concentrates mainly upon the economic effects created by the growth of domestic tourism and is illustrated by reference to some recent case studies, attention is also drawn to the favorable and unfavorable political, social, cultural, moral, environmental and conservational aspects of domestic tourism. The paper concludes by discussing some ways in which domestic tourism can provide an impetus to further economic growth in the holiday regions and also how domestic tourism may assist in solving some of the problems facing a country's international tourism.     

特色村镇与A级景区的空间关系及协同发展--以广西为例

广西特色村镇与A级景区作为两种互补的旅游资源,在同一区域存在共生关系,这种关系成为区域联动、共赢发展的重要模式。文章采用空间数量关系模型和空间质量关系模型,定量分析广西特色村镇与A级景区空间关系,得出两者在空间数量上关系显著,在空间质量上接近良好协调发展的结论,为两者协同发展的研究提供可行基础。并以交通通达度(道路交通情况和交通乘换点)、旅游经济发展要素点(酒店、餐饮、娱乐、购物)和参与主体(政府、企业、社区居民和非政府组织机构)为切入点,对广西特色村镇与A级景区协同发展关系进行研究。结果表明:(1)广西交通道路尤其是动车和高速路与两种旅游资源之间的协调性较低,A级旅游景区与最近交通乘换点距离优于特色村镇与最近交通乘换点距离,部分区域旅游经济发展要素点支撑不足,根据两者与交通通达度、旅游经济发展要素点的拟合情况,提出需要加大力度建设和优化桂西左江花山世界文化遗产地旅游资源群、桂西北东兰-巴马-凤山旅游资源群、桂东富川-恭城-灌阳旅游资源群和桂中金秀旅游资源群等旅游资源富集区的交通道路、交通乘换点、酒店和餐饮等基础建设。(2)根据分析广西特色村镇与A级景区实际发展状况,提出以政府引导、企业主导、社区居民参与和非政府组织机构协助与监督的特色村镇+A级景区旅游发展模式,为广西区域空间旅游发展战略的制定提供参考。     

Tourism and employment in the Gambia

In addition to providing formal wage labor in hotels, airports, and the service infrastructure, tourism is said to provide possibilities for independent indigenous enterprise in handicrafts, entertainment, transport, through which the Gambians may, in effect, economically “lift themselves up by their bootstraps.” Such is the theory. This paper analyzes the actual employment possibilities in The Gambia provided by its recent tourism investment. From the findings of an economic survey the author concludes that hopes of economic development being catalyzed by tourism are unfounded and misleading. This conclusion is supported by a structural analysis and a characterization of the tourist industry in The Gambia by an investigation into the economic forces at work in the country, and by direct observations made by informants and the author concerning the impact tourism has made in spheres non-economic: the moral, the social, and the family.     

The resilience of formal and informal tourism enterprises to disasters: reef tourism in Phuket,Thailand

This paper explores the resilience of vulnerable tourism sectors to disasters in a period of global change and interdependence. The coral reef tourism industry is highly vulnerable to natural disasters and economic and political shocks. The paper also explains why enterprise resilience is central to sustainable tourism management, for economic, socio-cultural and environmental reasons. It extends the concepts of ecological and social resilience to that of enterprise resilience. Using scenarios and interviews with key enterprise staff, the study contrasts the levels of resilience of formal and informal reef tourism enterprises, and the factors associated with the enterprise resilience in Phuket, Thailand, following the 2004 tsunami and the 2008 political crisis. Informal enterprises reported better financial condition in a crisis scenario and higher levels of social capital in the form of government, family and community support than formal enterprises. Formal and informal enterprises both enjoy high lifestyle benefits from reef tourism, which supports resilience. Most formal enterprises had part foreign ownership/management (61%); no informal enterprise had any foreign ownership or management. Management policies supporting reef tourism should consider local nuances and the importance of lifestyle benefits for both formal and informal enterprises, and take steps to enable enterprise flexibility and cost-cutting during crises.     

Tourism and urban public transport: Holding demand pressure under supply constraints

Scholars and local planners are becoming increasingly interested in the contribution of tourism to economic and social development. In the European cities that currently lead the world rankings for tourist arrivals, local governments have actively promoted tourism. Mobility is an essential issue for tourists visiting large cities, since it is a crucial factor for their comfort. It also facilitates the spread of benefits across the city. This study uses an international database of European cities to examine whether city planners respond to the additional demand for urban public transport by extending service supply. Our results confirm that tourism intensity is a demand-enhancing factor in urban public transport. However, cities do not seem to address this pressure by increasing services. Tourism appears to exert a positive externality on public transport, since it provides additional funding for these services, but it also imposes external costs on resident users because of the congestion caused by supply constraints.     

Tourism in the highlands and islands of Scotland rewards and conflicts

The paper examines the impact that tourism might be expected to have on peripheral regions, with a particular focus on the Highlands and Islands of Scotland while also drawing on the recorded experience of other areas. Tourism is evaluated as an economic, social, cultural, and political force to allow an assessment of its impact on the host community. The article recognizes that tourism may inevitably be associated with both costs and benefits in the same community and concludes that in order to ensure the most appropriate form of tourism, its development should be through local initiatives and consistent with local values.     

Development of advanced tourism studies in Holland

Bodewes, Theo, Development of Advanced Tourism Studies in Holland. Annals of Tourism Research 1981, VIII(1):35–51. The entry of tourism studies into the field of advanced education is often a difficult process. Theory and practice sometimes serve conflicting interests. In the Netherlands an option has been taken for a theoretical, multi-disciplinary approach with links to the field of practice. Within this framework, tourism is indissolubly connected with leisure and recreation, leisure being the core of studies. This implies that the universities should educate leisure economists, leisure sociologists, etc., and that advanced professional educational institutions should educate leisure experts. This paper discusses whether the problems and solutions in the Netherlands are recognizable and/or useful abroad, and whether one institution can learn from the experiences of others.     

U.S. tourism in Mexico: An empirical analysis

This study estimated demand functions for tourism by U.S. residents in Mexico border areas, the Mexican interior, and overseas. There was no evidence that U.S. tourists substitute Mexico for more distant destinations as transportation costs rise. Border tourism is income elastic when the share of U.S. income of the border states is held fixed. Tourism in the Mexican interior is also income elastic. Tourism along the border is price elastic, while tourism in the interior is elastic with respect to U.S. and overseas prices but inelastic with respect to Mexican prices. The rise in the share of the Mexican interior in U.S. overseas tourism is not related to price factors. Recent devaluations of the Mexican peso are unlikely to provide benefits to the Mexican tourism industry.