Entrepreneurial intention among University students in Malaysia: integrating self-determination theory and the theory of planned behavior

The present study endeavors to develop a deeper understanding of the motivational processes involved in intentional entrepreneurial behavior. For this purpose, it integrates the social cognitive approach of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and the organismic theory of motivation of self-determination theory (SDT). More specifically, it tests the role of basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness as defined in SDT in shaping university students’ attitudes and intentions toward entrepreneurship. The sample of this study consisted of 438 (Males?=?166, Females =272) 3rd and 4th year university students from four Malaysian Public Universities. The results of the study show that the model strongly explains about 71% of the variance in entrepreneurial intention. Basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness have a strong indirect impact on entrepreneurial intention via their attitudinal antecedents: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. This indicates a full-mediational model, where the attitudinal factors operated as transmitters of effects from the distal constructs of SDT on entrepreneurial intention. These findings confirm that both SDT and the TPB provide complementary explanations of the motivational processes of entrepreneurial behavior. The study contributes to the existing knowledge by providing a theory-based understanding of the role of motivations in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. It opens the way for future research to analyze how alternative motivations may affect new venture creation, survival and success.

     

Does direct experience matter? Examining the consequences of current entrepreneurial behavior on entrepreneurial intention

Entrepreneurial behavior research has used intention models to explain how an individual’s beliefs shape the attitudes and motivations that influence entrepreneurial intention. Nevertheless, as entrepreneurship promotion initiatives become global, it becomes relevant to explore the consequences of being engaged in entrepreneurial behavior on entrepreneurial intention. We aim to shed light on whether the direct experience reinforces an individual’s entrepreneurial intention or reduces it. Building on an extended version of the planned behavior theory, we use the behavioral reasoning theory to propose a research design to study the influence of being currently engaged in entrepreneurial behavior on entrepreneurial intention. We introduce individual’s age as an additional moderator of the effects of directly experiencing entrepreneurial behavior. We use PLS-MGA to complete a multi-group SEM analysis for different groups of individuals (from a sample of 430), comparing groups based on their entrepreneurial activity and age group. Results of this research work evidence that current engagement in entrepreneurship activities produces significant differences in the intention to start a new venture between older and younger participants. The results suggest that engagement in entrepreneurial activity modifies entrepreneurial intention and that these effects are contingent to the individual’s age. This research work contributes to the extant call to explore reverse causality between actual behavior and an individual’s intention by introducing behavioral reasoning theory. These results provide support to initiatives to adapt entrepreneurship promotion efforts to the specific characteristics of the participants.     

Tracking precursors of entrepreneurial intention: the case of researchers involved in eco-label industry

This article is based on the adaptation of Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior (TPB) to build an entrepreneurial intention framework tailored to the specific context of researchers involved in eco-label industry, who can be perceived as nascent entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurial intention model is tested on a convenience sample of researchers involved in eco-label industry from a wide range of countries. The configurational effect of research experience, personal attitude, funding instruments and entrepreneurial education level is tested for causal condition related to entrepreneurial intention of 25 eco-label researchers. The qualitative approach of data reveals that research experience and personal attitude relate positively to entrepreneurial career intentions and that these relationships are mediated by entrepreneurial education level. A multi-sided online platform connecting innovators and potential investors is considered a suitable solution for funding respondents’ results of research and innovation activities. Stimulating entrepreneurial motivations and intentions may help researchers to better adapt to alternative career perspectives. Results of this study suggest several ways to stimulate entrepreneurial career choices among researchers involved in eco-label industry.

     

Entrepreneurial intention: the role of gender

There is general agreement in previous research, drawing on the Theory of Planned Behaviour, that attitudes towards entrepreneurship are determining factors on entrepreneurial intention and gender also seems to play a key role. This study supports the core entrepreneurial intention model and focuses on the role of gender in this process, showing that men are more likely to think about creating a firm than being determined to do it. However, of those men, the ones who perceive higher congruence between masculine and entrepreneurial attributes are more likely to have a firm entrepreneurial intention. Also, both men and women with a firm entrepreneurial intention perceive successful entrepreneurs to have feminine attributes. This, together with the characteristics of the sample, may explain the lack of a gender difference in entrepreneurial intention.     

Propensity to firm creation: empirical research using structural equations

The identification of the entrepreneurs’ characteristics and the knowledge of the entrepreneurial profile of university students have been assuming a growing importance in the development of educational programs directed towards the entrepreneurship and start-up processes. This study aims to identify the factors that most contribute for the intention to start up a business. The research also tries to identify the profile of a potential entrepreneur student concerning several characteristics: personal attributes, family, demographic variables and motivations. Research findings include the idea that entrepreneurship education is the most relevant factor in what concerns the propensity to business creation. On the other side, personal characteristics have an important role in shaping motivation to start-up a business and perceived hurdles have a negative impact in the intention to start-up. The results may be relevant when developing an adequate educational program directed to the entrepreneurship education and start-up processes.     

Regional variations in entrepreneurial cognitions: Start-up intentions of university students in Spain

Empirical research has recently paid considerable attention to the role of environmental factors in explaining regional variations in entrepreneurial activity. However, cognitive models have not usually included these factors in their analyses. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to identify some of the environmental cognitive elements that may explain regional differences in start-up intentions. Thus, an entrepreneurial intention model is developed, theoretically based on the planned behaviour approach, institutional economic theory and social capital theory. The empirical analysis is carried out using structural equation techniques over a sample of 549 final year university students from two Spanish regions (Catalonia and Andalusia). Results confirm that valuation of entrepreneurship in each region helps explain regional differences in entrepreneurial intentions. As expected, social valuation of the entrepreneur was higher in the more developed region (Catalonia), positively affecting perceived subjective norms and behavioural control. In Andalusia, the influence of perceived valuation of the entrepreneur in the closer environment was more important, affecting attitude towards the behaviour and subjective norms. These results explain some of the differences in the pool of potential entrepreneurs in each region. They also justify the need by public-policy decision-makers to promote more positive entrepreneurial values in relatively backward regions.     

Skill and value perceptions: how do they affect entrepreneurial intentions?

This paper starts from Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior to test the role of different perceptions on the individual’s intention to become an entrepreneur. Support has most often been found for this theory in the field of entrepreneurship. However, little is yet known about the way in which perceptions are formed. It may be argued that social values regarding entrepreneurship, and also personal skill perceptions, would both affect entrepreneurial intentions. Our objective, therefore, is testing the existence and reach of both effects. Empirical analysis has been carried out on a sample of 249 university students. Structural equations models have been used to test our hypotheses. Results generally confirm them, since values and skills do play a significant role in explaining intention. However, the role of perceived skills seems to be more relevant. Implications may be derived in several areas, and especially regarding entrepreneurship education.     

Beyond Homo Entrepreneurus: Judgment and the Theory of Cultural Entrepreneurship

In this paper, we embrace the critique of the contemporary entrepreneurship literature offered by Foss, Klein, and Bjørnskov, and applaud their advance of the Judgment‐Based Approach (JBA) as a way to broaden our understanding of entrepreneurial processes by contextualizing entrepreneurial action. However, we believe that to attain the promise of the JBA, a broader inter‐disciplinary engagement beyond economics is required. Drawing on theory and arguments in the cultural entrepreneurship literature, we emphasize the fruitfulness of foregrounding the role of culture – a theoretical focus that is marginalized both in the mainstream entrepreneurship literature and in the JBA. We compare the JBA and the Theory of Cultural Entrepreneurship and outline how a wider inter‐disciplinary research agenda could be advanced in entrepreneurial studies.     

Entrepreneurial motivation

Recent research on entrepreneurship has focused largely on macrolevel environmental forces [Aldrich, H. (2000). Organizations evolving. Beverly Hills: Sage] and the characteristics of entrepreneurial opportunities [Christiansen, C. (1997). The innovators dilemma. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press]. Although researchers adopting this focus have rightly criticized much of the existing empirical research on the role of human motivation in entrepreneurship [Aldrich, H., & Zimmer, C. (1986). Entrepreneurship through social networks. In D. Sexton & R. Smilor (Eds.), The art and science of entrepreneurship (pp. 3–23). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger; Adm. Sci. Q. 32 (1987) 570], we believe that the development of entrepreneurship theory requires consideration of the motivations of people making entrepreneurial decisions. To provide a road map for researchers interested in this area, we discuss the major motivations that prior researchers have suggested should influence the entrepreneurial process, as well as suggest some motivations that are less commonly studied in this area. In addition to outlining the major reasons for exploring these motivations, we identify the major weaknesses that have limited the predictive power of previous research on this topic. We offer explicit solutions for future research to adopt to overcome these problems.     

Feeling the risks: effects of the development of emotional competences with outdoor training on the entrepreneurial intent of university students

Nowadays, one of the roles of universities is the promotion of entrepreneurship, particularly, among students. Research on entrepreneurship at an individual level of analysis focuses on the personal characteristics and the entrepreneurial attitude that stimulate its development, studying the factors affecting that some individuals discover and exploit opportunities by creating a company, while others do not. Yet, it has been proved that psychological characteristics of individuals affect their entrepreneurial intention. Additionally, experiential learning techniques, such as outdoor training have been showed as useful to change emotional competences. However, there is not any research on how changes in emotional competencies influence individual entrepreneurial intent in university students, particularly after participating in an outdoor training experience. This paper analyses quantitative and qualitative data of last-year university students who participated in an outdoor training experience, measuring its emotional competences and entrepreneurial orientation, before and after that experience. It contributes to the understanding on how changes in emotional competences affect the entrepreneurial intent of university students. Results indicate that changes in emotional competences, such as self-management, social awareness, and relationship management affect entrepreneurial orientation, particularly innovation and risk, affecting, thus, entrepreneurial intention.     

Case analysis of Canadian self–employment assistance programming 1

A fundamental question of interest to both researchers and practitioners alike focuses on why some individuals discover and elect to exploit opportunities to create future goods and services while others do not. Past studies have focused on the role knowledge-based resources play in the early stages of new venture creation, yet few have considered the role cognitive motivations play in impacting the processing and use of information during this process. In this study, we theorize that a cognitive need for closure (NfC), or possessing a desire for an answer on some topic as opposed to enduring confusion and ambiguity, is an important aspect of the entrepreneurial judgment formation process. We hypothesize that the need for closure will be positively related to nascent entrepreneurial activity because it provides a cognitive mechanism for dealing with the opened-ended nature of opportunity pursuit. Data drawn from the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics (PSED) support this hypothesis. More specifically, results suggest that a high NfC is likely to foster the exploitation of discovered opportunity irrespective of their age, gender, position in the family birth order, or unique personal knowledge base. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.     

Influence of institutional environment on entrepreneurial intention: a comparative study of two countries university students

Institutional environment influences the perceptions of desirability and feasibility, society’s social and cultural environment, such as beliefs, values and attitudes, conditions behaviour and decisions made by individuals. This research evaluates the influence of institutional environment on entrepreneurial intention using a comparative analysis of different attitudes among university students in two countries: Portugal and Spain. In particular, this study aims to examine the perceptions of desirability, feasibility and intention toward the creation of one’s own business and how that variables influence the entrepreneurial intention as compared these two different institutional contexts. Results revealed difference among attitudes toward entrepreneurship in both countries. With respect to the perception of feasibility, the majority of students in Extremadura (Spain) consider that it is easier to create a business in nowadays than it was several decades ago. However, from the students of Beira Interior (Portugal) consider that it is more difficult. Furthermore, in Extremadura, the entrepreneurial intention is higher than in Beira Interior.     

The moderating role of anticipated affective ambivalence in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions

Students’ predictions of the affective consequences of starting their own business encompass, simultaneously, positive and negative thoughts and feelings (anticipated affective ambivalence). We theorize that anticipated affective ambivalence constitutes a significant element in the entrepreneurial process holding a central role in the realization of entrepreneurial intentions. In the herein presented research, we propose and test a model within which anticipated affective ambivalence is expected to moderate the impact of attitudes towards entrepreneurship (ATT), subjective norms (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC) on entrepreneurial intention. Results from a large sample of university student participants found that anticipated affective ambivalence moderated the effects of ATT and SN on entrepreneurial intention (INT) but not the effect of PBC on INT. Theoretically the findings introduce affective ambivalence in the area of nascent entrepreneurship and within the Theory of Planned Behavior model. Practically, the study highlights affective ambivalence in the context of universities’ increasing interest to promote entrepreneurship and to develop suitable educational programs.     

Factors affecting peasant entrepreneurs’ intention in the Chinese context

In the extant literature, research attention has been largely given to explore the issue of Chinese peasant entrepreneurship based on strategic entrepreneurial perspective. The current study examines the intention of Chinese peasant entrepreneurs based on entrepreneurial behavior perspective and hypothesizes that self-efficacy positively moderates the relationship between the need for power and entrepreneurial intention and the relationship between institutional environment and entrepreneurial intention. An analysis of a sample of 298 Chinese peasants proved most of the hypotheses. Results show that the need for power has a positive influence on the entrepreneurial intentions of the selected low-social-status population. Results also reveal the positive effect of the institutional environment perceived by individuals on entrepreneurial intention. The finding indicates that the government can enhance the entrepreneurial intention of rural individuals by updating entrepreneurial policies, by training and education in entrepreneurial activities that target the rural masses, and by promoting a successful entrepreneurial model. Moreover, positive moderation of self-efficacy on the relationship between the need for power and entrepreneurial intention is proven, which indicates that the effects of these two factors on entrepreneurial intention mutually reinforce each other. The finding also indicates that moderation of self-efficacy on the relationship between the institutional environment and entrepreneurial intention is negative that shows that self-efficacy and institutional environment can substitute for each other.     

Mapping the strategic factor market for sport entrepreneurship

Previous scholarship in entrepreneurship and sport management has highlighted their symbiotic nature. The degree to which sport is embedded in society makes it an ideal platform from which to launch economically-motivated entrepreneurial endeavors that may also be leveraged to generate socially transformative causes. Despite this important realization, efforts to understand sport entrepreneurship have been limited in their ability to describe the broad trends affecting sport entrepreneurs. This study uses a sample of 967 sport-related transactions by private equity and venture capital firms between 1988 and 2016 to chart some of these trends. In doing so, we hope to provide a solid foundation on which future sport entrepreneurship research can build. The results accentuate some interesting paradoxes in how private equity and venture capitalist firms invest in and divest from sport-related entrepreneurial ventures.     

Entrepreneurial intentions in the context of a collectivist economy: a comparison between Cuba and Spain

Entrepreneurship research has matured and now spans multiple entrepreneurial contexts, including developing countries, emerging and transitional economies. However, collectivist economies have largely been ignored, partly due to difficulties in conducting research and partly due to the widespread assumption that they remain on the outskirts of entrepreneurial activity. In this paper, from the entrepreneurial event model perspective, we analyse entrepreneurial intention and its antecedents in Cuba, probably the best example of a collectivist economy that exists nowadays. Cuba is compared to Spain, a country that shares historical and cultural features but one which has a developed market economy. Findings indicate that desirability and feasibility constitute the main antecedents of entrepreneurial intention in Cuba, as other studies in market economy countries reflect. However, the influence of desirability on entrepreneurial intention is lower in Cuba compared to Spain, where the values of desirability and feasibility are significantly greater. These results seem to indicate that due to Cuba’s level of development, political regime and collectivist culture, entrepreneurship arises mainly out of necessity and the emergence of a strong entrepreneurial culture is stifled. This reflects a similar situation to the result obtained in previous studies in developing countries.

     

The impact of a STEM-based entrepreneurship program on the entrepreneurial intention of secondary school female students

Despite dedicated effort and research in the last two decades, the entrepreneurship field is still limited by little evidence-based knowledge of the impacts of entrepreneurship programs on the entrepreneurial intention of students in pre-university levels of study. Further, gender equity continues to be an issue in the entrepreneurial sector, particularly in STEM-focused entrepreneurship. In this context, this study was designed to explore the effects of a one-day female-focused STEM-based entrepreneurship program (for brevity, we call it the OzGirlsEntrepreneurship program) on the entrepreneurial intention of secondary school female students. The study collected data from two surveys completed by 193 secondary school female students, aged 14–16 years, who participated in the OzGirlsEntrepreneurship program. This program encouraged girls to develop and implement creative computational solutions to socially relevant problems, with an Internet of Things (IoT) component using the micro:bit device. The findings reveal that a key factor in the development of entrepreneurial attitudes in young female students is associated with soft-skills development, particularly in the areas of creative thinking, risk-taking, problem-solving, and leadership development. The importance of meaningful human connections, including positive role modelling and peer to peer learning were also important factors in fostering entrepreneurial intent. With these factors in mind, our findings highlight that the OzGirlsEntrepreneurship program substantially increased the entrepreneurial intention of secondary school female students. In addition, this study offers actionable implications and recommendations to develop and deliver entrepreneurship education programs for secondary school level students.

     

Breadth-of-impact frontier: How firm-level decisions and selection environment dynamics generate boundary-spanning inventions

In this paper, we provide an ex-ante explanation for why some technologies such as James Watt’s steam engine move successfully across broad technological fields, while other technologies do not. Using a sample of VC-backed biotechnology firms, we examine firm knowledge exploration choices along three dimensions—the decision to build from technologies across broad fields, the decision to explore application domains that are new to the firm, and the decision to mix these two options at the same time. We argue that firm-level invention decisions find differing responses when received by the selection environment. We find evidence of a “breadth-of-impact frontier” for technologies, wherein the choice of whether a firm should enter into a new application domain than those of the past should be informed by the degree to which the technology is citing prior work narrowly or broadly. The findings suggest that the belief that broad sourcing diversity will always result in greater citation diversity requires some caveats. The results contribute to the understanding of not only how entrepreneurial firms evolve but also how individual firms contribute to collective progress.     

Growth intentions among research scientists: A cognitive style perspective

Although academic entrepreneurship has taken place in some U.S. universities for many decades, it is only over the past few decades that there has been an increased interest by universities worldwide to engage in their third mission related to entrepreneurship and economic development. Recently, researchers studying academic entrepreneurship have increasingly focused on understanding research scientists׳ entrepreneurial intentions. It has however also been acknowledged that, next to understanding entrepreneurial intentions, it is important to generate insights into growth intentions. This is because growth is unlikely to be achieved if no growth intention exists. Taking a cognition and self-efficacy perspective, our study explores how cognitive styles are associated with growth intentions within a group of research scientists having entrepreneurial intentions. Our study indicates that a planning cognitive style promotes while a knowing cognitive style curbs growth intentions. Further, working experience mitigates the negative impact of a knowing style on growth intentions. Our research has practical implications and implications for technology management, academic entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions literatures.     

The influence of perceptions on potential entrepreneurs

Much research has tried to explain why some people, but not others, choose to become entrepreneurs. The cognitive approach provides a useful insight to explore the entrepreneur-related phenomena through perceptions and intentions. Cross-national studies of this kind are rare, since large international surveys are needed. In this sense, the GEM-project questionnaire includes some questions about entrepreneurial perceptions of the adult population. Thus, the main objective of this paper is building a theoretical framework of entrepreneurial perceptions and testing their influence on entrepreneurial intentions with GEM data. This may allow overcoming some of the weaknesses of previous studies in entrepreneurial intentions. Three kinds of perceptions are identified: individual perceptions, perceptions about entrepreneurial opportunities, and socio-cultural perceptions. Their effect on intentions is tested along with some control variables. Results confirm that these perceptions are relevant variables in explaining the entrepreneurial intention of individuals across nations. At the same time, results from this paper would contribute to the opening up of a new line of analysis using GEM-project data: the conception stage of the new venture process; that is, the study of potential entrepreneurs.