A proposed model of online consumer behavior: Assessing the role of gender

This research examined the influence of Internet experience and web atmospherics on consumer online behavior. It developed a model of web navigation behavior where these antecedent variables drove website exploratory behavior and website involvement, which in turn, drove site attitudes and pre-purchase evaluations. These relationships were tested and confirmed in the context of a pharmaceutical website. Further, men and women differed in web navigation behavior, with men engaging in less exploratory behavior and developing less website involvement than women. However, across the two sexes, entertainment, challenge, and effectiveness of information content were the key drivers of website attitudes. The findings provide several guidelines for online communication strategy.     

Creating Online Brand Personality: The Role of Personal Difference

This study explores the concept of online brand personality, creation of online brand personality, and the role of personal difference in terms of advertising effectiveness – memory and attitude. The primary research question is whether individual's matching personality to online brand creates different responses toward online brand in terms of advertising effectiveness, such as memory, attitude and behavior. The results found that: first, website structure is an important factor on subjects' attitude toward the website; second, individual's personality is an important moderator on the effects of website structure; and third, individual's personality and brand personality have a significant interaction effect on attitude and behavioral intention.     

The influence of culture,emotions, intangibility,and atmospheric cues on online behavior

This paper examines how emotions and website atmospheric cues influence service tangibility and consumer attitudes. The proposed model was compared across three cultures: North America (Canada and U.S.), China, and the Middle East. The findings support the overall model and demonstrate several non-invariant paths across the groups. Particularly, the results suggest how the influences of two emotional dimensions (pleasure and dominance) on consumer perceptions of site atmospherics vary across cultures. Moreover, the effects of service tangibility dimensions (physical tangibility, specificity, and mental tangibility) on consumers' attitudes toward the website and service vary significantly across the three cultures. Mental tangibility has the greatest influence on North American customers' attitudes, while physical tangibility and specificity have the greatest impact on Chinese and Middle Eastern customers' attitudes, respectively.     

The Effects of Native Ads on Consumer Brand Engagement: The Moderating Role of Website Credibility

Abstract

This research examined the effect of native ads on consumer brand engagement – specifically, how source disclosure of ad sponsors affected consumers’ perceived ad deceptiveness as well as their attitude toward the company and the brand. It also explored the moderating role of website credibility. One hundred and ten college students in South Korea participated in the experimental study, which found that high source disclosure of ad sponsors positively affected perceived deceptiveness. The effect of source disclosure on perceived deceptiveness was moderated by website credibility. Perceived deceptiveness negatively affected consumers’ attitude toward the company and the brand. The mediating role of perceived deceptiveness between source disclosure and consumer brand engagement was confirmed only when website credibility was high. The paper discusses the theoretical and practical implications of the findings as well as suggestions for future research in this area.     

The Effect of Gay-Friendly and Non-Gay-Friendly Cues on Brand Attitudes: A Comparison of Heterosexual and Gay/Lesbian Reactions

This study sought to evaluate responses of gay and heterosexual consumers to gay-friendly and non-friendly cues and the resultant effects on the variables of brand satisfaction, brand commitment, and attitude toward the brand. Variables for predicting brand commitment based on Rusbult's Investment Model are explored. Results suggest that heterosexual consumers, while noticing gay-friendly cues in brand communications, do not develop negative attitudes as a result of exposure to those cues. Further, as gay and lesbian consumers react positively and strongly and heterosexual consumers react neutrally, it is a reasonable strategy for brands to pursue gay-friendly marketing.     

The Effect of Consumer Multifactorial Gender and Biological Sex on the Evaluation of Cross‐Gender Brand Extensions

Introducing cross‐gender brand extensions—masculine or feminine brands that extend to the opposite gender—is a growing trend on the marketplace, though not always a successful one. This research examines the effect of consumer multifactorial gender and biological sex on consumers’ evaluation of cross‐gender brand extensions. The influence of gender role attitudes is demonstrated: consumers with traditional gender attitudes are significantly more reluctant to accept these extensions than consumers with more liberal attitudes. Hence the extensions have a negative impact on the subsequent attitude of the former group toward the parent brand, contrary to their effect on more egalitarian consumers. No significant impact of the consumer's biological sex, gender identity, or sexual orientation is identified. The theoretical and managerial implications of these findings for the development of cross‐gender brand extensions are discussed.     

Is a website known by the banner ads it hosts?

While marketers often rely upon banner ads to generate revenues, it is unclear as to how these ads might influence consumer perceptions of host websites. In this paper, we conduct three studies to examine the effect of animation and brand advertised in a banner ad on consumers’ attitude towards a host website, as well as word-of-mouth behaviour. Results of the first study reveal that consumers are irritated with unfavourable banner brands and that irritation, in turn, negatively affects their attitude towards the host website. We demonstrate that banner brand and banner type serve as contextual cues that influence judgements of the host website due to a forward spillover effect. Findings of the second study demonstrate that a host website, corol- larily, serves as a context to negatively influence evaluations of favourable brands mainly for animated banner ads - a reciprocal spillover effect. The third study validates and extends the findings of the first study by adopting methodological pluralism through a different approach to stimuli selection and experimental manipulation. Results indicate that, while presence of animation has a negative influence on the host site and WOM behaviour when the brand advertised is an unfavourable one, it neither benefits nor hurts a host website evaluation and WOM behaviour when a favourable brand is advertised. Managerial implications of our findings are also discussed.     

Online consumer behavior: Comparing Canadian and Chinese website visitors

Zajonc's (1980) theory of emotions and Mehrabian and Russell's (1974) stimulus-organism-response (SOR) framework inform the development of a model of online customer behavior. The model examines the impacts of the three types of emotions (pleasure, arousal, and dominance) on perceptions of site atmospherics (informativeness, effectiveness, and entertainment). In turn, the associations of site atmospherics on site attitudes, site involvement, service attitudes, and purchase intentions are investigated. The model is compared between Canadian and Chinese customers based on Hofstede's (1991) cultural value dimensions. The findings supported the model and revealed several non-invariant paths between the groups. Particularly, the impact of pleasure (dominance) on the other behavioral variables was higher for Canadian (Chinese) compared to Chinese (Canadian) customers. Moreover, the impacts of low (high) task relevant cues were stronger for Chinese (Canadian) customers compared to their Canadian (Chinese) counterparts. Discussion centers on the theoretical and practical implications of the findings.     

Affective cues and brand‐extension evaluation: Exploring the influence of attitude toward the parent brand and attitude toward the extension ad

This research investigates the influence of two affective cues, namely, attitude toward the parent brand and attitude toward the extension ad, on brand‐extension evaluation. Results show that as perceived congruity between the extension and the parent brand decreases, the influence of attitude toward the parent brand on brand‐extension evaluation decreases, but the influence of attitude toward the extension ad increases. The impact of the two affective cues also appears to be moderated by an individual's need for cognition. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Marketing eco-fashion: The influence of brand name and message explicitness

This study investigated the influence of two variables – brand name and message explicitness – on attitude toward advertisement and attitude toward brand, and further, explored the impact of attitude toward advertisement, attitude toward brand, and other variables on consumer purchase intention. A questionnaire with an experimental design component was administered to 343 college students. Results revealed that respondents formed positive attitudes toward apparel brand when the advertising message contained explicit information about environmentally friendly products. Attitude toward brand, subjective norm, attitude toward advertisement, eco-fashion involvement, and environmental commitment were strong predictors of intention to purchase an environmentally friendly apparel brand. Implications are that apparel marketers may build more positive attitudes toward brands by providing explicit information about environmentally friendly products in their marketing claims. This may be one way for marketers to attract college students who are interested in purchasing environmentally friendly products, but who are not fully committed to a green lifestyle. Further, marketers may be able to reach those who are less interested in purchasing environmentally friendly products by raising awareness and knowledge of the benefits associated with their products and brands, which may help to establish a sustainable market for eco-fashion.     

The reverse Napoleon effect: The brand appreciation of looking up by tall people

Integrating the embodied cognition framework with research on the self, this study shows that head canting (the vertical tilt of the head to look up vs. down) interacts with a viewer's physical height to influence perceived brand power and behavioral intentions. Three studies use a variety of brand cues in both laboratory and field contexts to test the effect of head canting on brand power evaluations, the role of a person's physical height as a moderator and boundary condition, and the mediating role of consumer–brand identification. Study 1, an experiment, showed that tall, but not short individuals, evaluate a brand as more powerful when looking up (rather than down) at a brand story from a standing position, with differences in brand power impacting brand attitudes and choice. Study 2 replicates these findings with 30 brands, consumers positioned in a seated position, and brand logos. Both studies rule out the construal level as a process mediator. Study 3 further examines the process and demonstrates that the interaction of head canting with a person's height impacts consumer–brand identification, which mediates brand evaluations. These findings add a brand management and physical-self perspective to previous embodiment research by specifically examining the effects of sensorimotor experiences.     

Schadenfreude,attitude and the purchase intentions of a counterfeit luxury brand

Luxury brand counterfeiting is illegal and its harmful effects on genuine brands and on the wider society are well known. Nonetheless, it has not prevented consumers to buy copies. This study introduces a new variable, Schadenfreude – the pleasure felt in response to another's misfortune – and examines how this emotion relates to the intention to purchase a counterfeit, the attitude toward the original brand, and the attitude toward the counterfeit. An online questionnaire was completed by 420 respondents who were presented a scenario involving the Louis Vuitton brand and a counterfeit. Using structural equation modeling, four hypotheses were supported. Major findings show that Schadenfreude is positively correlated with the intention to buy and the attitude toward counterfeiting and negatively correlated with the attitude toward the original brand. Luxury goods firms should be aware of the potential negative effects of Schadenfreude.     

The effect of 3-D product visualisation on the strength of brand attitude

This study investigates the effect of 3-D product visualisation on attitude accessibility and attitude confidence, two non-evaluative dimensions of attitudes that have not been studied in previous research. The experiment analysed two versions of a website (3-D vs 2-D), in which the capacity to interact with the product has been manipulated. The results show that consumers’ brand attitudes formed via an interactive 3-D product are more accessible and held with greater confidence, in comparison with those formed via the product presented in a static 2-D mode. The study also reveals the mechanism underlying such influences – that is, the enhanced perceived diagnosticity and mental imagery, as well as their interaction, account for the effect of 3-D product visualisation on the strength of brand attitude.     

Does gay-themed advertising haunt your brand?

This study is designed to investigate the effect of gay-themed advertising as well as consumers’ gender, tolerance towards homosexuality (low vs high tolerance) and consumers’ brand commitment (low vs high commitment) on attitude towards ad and attitude towards brand. The study result suggests that people exposed to non-gay-themed ads had more positive attitudes towards the brand than did people exposed to gay-themed ads. The study findings suggest that ads featuring homosexual imagery could lead to negative brand evaluation. The study finds that heterosexual males exposed to such ads had less favourable attitudes towards the advertising and brand as well. The study finds that subjects with high tolerance towards homosexuality have more positive attitudes towards the ad and brand, and have higher purchase intention than do subjects with low tolerance. Furthermore, the results suggest that people with high brand commitment had more favourable attitudes towards ad and brand. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.     

A note on the role of cause type in cause-related marketing

This note examines an unexplored area of cause-related marketing: the influence of the cause category on consumer perceptions. The experiment shows that the four cause categories which represent the domain of charitable causes can have a differential effect on attitudes and purchase intention. The health cause category and human services cause category have a greater effect on attitude toward the cause than the animal or environmental cause categories when brand familiarity and cause importance were high. Only the human services category has a greater effect on attitude toward the alliance when brand familiarity and cause importance were high as well as when both were low. For attitude toward the brand and purchase intentions, there were no differences among the cause categories.     

Sports sponsorship effects on customer equity: an Asian market application

The authors of this study investigate sponsorship effects on customers in Korea and China, specifically to determine whether current sponsorship research applies to Asian countries and whether the model is significantly different between Korea and China. For this purpose, 251 Koreans and 309 Chinese participated in a survey. The findings suggest that appropriate fit between the sponsor and the sports event enhances brand loyalty and customer equity by positively influencing attitude toward the sponsor and brand image. However, in China, the sponsor's fit did not directly impact brand image. As expected, sporting event experience search positively affects attitudes toward the sponsoring brand, which enhances brand image. Koreans' more favourable attitude toward the sponsoring brand positively influences their brand preference, but favourable attitude does not significantly affect Chinese consumers' perceived congruency with a product. Brand image positively impacted brand preference, and therefore confirms brand personality's congruence effect in both countries. Both brand image and brand preference directly and positively enabled brand loyalty to develop more favourable customer equity. Koreans, however, showed higher effects in the relationships between brand image and brand loyalty and between brand loyalty and customer equity.     

An investigation of brand placement effects on brand attitudes and purchase intentions: Brand placements versus TV commercials

Brand placements are gradually becoming an important part of promotional toolkit of many major companies. However, despite the increasing volume of research on brand placements during the last decade, several important questions still remain unanswered. The purpose of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of brand placements in television sitcoms and contrast it with the effectiveness of 30-second commercials. The authors administer a quasi-natural experiment to a sample of research panel participants to investigate how brand placements in television sitcoms affect their attitudes and purchase intentions. Results of the study suggest that people have a more positive attitude toward brand placements than toward traditional television commercials. Moreover, placements can be more effective than 30-seconds commercials when targeting audiences with low attitude toward advertising. Finally, a combination of a brand placement and a commercial within one program doesn't significantly increase brand attitudes and purchase intentions compared with sole exposure conditions.     

The effects of audio-visual and visual-only cues on consumers' responses to co-branded advertising

Co-branded advertising (two brands featured in the same ad) is a relatively new and under-researched area of advertising that offers advertisers the opportunity to share advertising costs and leverage brand equity. Despite its growing popularity, few research studies have examined the potential benefits and/or limitations of this executional strategy, and particularly a strategy in which one brand (a focal brand) is paired with another, but less emphasized (peripheral) brand. This study reports the results of an empirical investigation that examines how modifying reference to the peripheral brand (visual-only versus simultaneous visual and audio references) influences consumers' perceived associations of the advertised brands, as well as their attitudes toward the advertisement and intentions to purchase either brand. Employing a convenience sample of undergraduate students on a university campus in the United States, the results of this study indicate that audio-visual cues enhance brand association and purchase intentions. However, additional analyses reveal that attitude toward a co-branded advertisement mediates the brand association effect on purchase intentions toward the focal brand, whereas brand association has a direct effect on purchase intentions toward the peripheral brand.     

Should all firms adapt websites to international audiences?

The authors investigate the moderating roles of brand equity and purchasing risk in the relationships between website cultural congruity (WCC) and two dependent variables: attitude toward the website (A_ST) and trust in the e-vendor. An exploratory study identifies typical French website design elements (graphic design and layout factors) to use in a subsequent experimental study to manipulate WCC. The results reveal that the effect of WCC on A_ST increases when brand equity is weak; for trust, both brand equity and purchasing risk act as moderators. The interaction between brand equity and purchasing risk reveals that WCC only influences trust when brand equity is weak. Overall, the results suggest that strong brand equity outweighs the effects of WCC in terms of improving site attitudes and reducing purchasing risk, with notable managerial and research implications.     

How Attitudes Toward Product Categories Drive Individual Brand Attitudes and Choice

Three experiments examine the role of attitudes toward the category to which a brand belongs in consumers’ attitudes toward individual brands. The core findings indicate that what consumers think generally about a category affects their evaluations of singular brands belonging to the category. Study 1 demonstrates that both consumers’ attitudes toward a category as well as their relative attitudes toward a brand versus intracategory competitors drive overall attitudes toward individual brands. Study 2 shows that manipulating attitudes toward a product category affects attitudes toward, and purchase intention of, individual brands belonging to that category. Study 3 demonstrates that more versus less favorably evaluated categories are more likely to exhibit brand positivity effects in judgments of singular brands. The results suggest the practical importance of measuring attitudes toward product categories, as well as the utility of marketing interventions aimed at the category level.