THE ANALYSIS OF CAUSE MAPS

Cause maps are coded following many different conventions. It is therefore arguable that there can be no general approach to their analysis. Indeed the interpretation and meaning of the analysis can only be undertaken in relation to both the purpose of the research and the theoretical basis of the form of representation to be analysed, be it a cause map, network, or any other graphical picture. Given these reservations, this article outlines a number of techniques for the analysis of cause maps. In order to make the arguments about cause-map analyses concrete, the article suggests what the various analyses described might imply for an understanding and evaluation of cognitive complexity. It does not address the difficult issue relating to the status of cognitive complexity as measured in these ways but rather simply notes that they are each as plausible or more plausible than many others that are often used. Ultimately the measures are to be taken as a portfolio of indicators of the complexity of the map itself.     

THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE ON STRATEGIC DECISION MAKING

Strategic management researchers are showing increased interest in the cognitions of strategic decision-makers. In this article, the importance of strategic cognitions is discussed and research on a number of major topics within the cognitive perspective is summarized. the paper concludes with an integrative model of cognitions in strategic decision making. This model provides the basis for questions for future research.     

SHIFTING BOUNDARIES IN ECONOMICS: THE INSTITUTIONAL COGNITIVE STRAND AND THE FUTURE OF INSTITUTIONAL ECONOMICS

This paper aims at contributing to the debate on the future of institutional economics and of the field as a whole by starting from the literature that discusses the relationship between Old‐Original Institutional Economics and New Institutional Economics. It suggests that the process of reunifying OIE and NIE (and evolutionary economics) prompted by part of the literature could be improved by the contribution of the Cognitive Institutional Economics. The paper follows a two‐stage pathway: first, it frames the debate on the relationships between NIE and the OIE and it concentrates on a subset of the literature that shows that NIE's recent developments complicate the distinction between NIE and OIE, and it explores the possibility that NIE and OIE may merge so that an amalgam of NIE, OIE and Evolutionary Economics becomes the next economic paradigm. Secondly, the paper argues that a step forward in the direction outlined by the literature has been made by CIE, which is a research stream that developed from cross‐fertilization among NIE, OIE and the Hayekian contributions to the analysis of institutions. In the concluding remarks, the possible emergence of a single institutional paradigm is discussed in the light of the literature about change in economics.     

THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY: THE INDISSOLUBLE NATURE OF SOCIO-POLITICAL AND TECHNICAL SKILLS*

This paper explores the role of management consultants in the development of information technology (IT) in organizations. Contending that the process of IT systems development is characterized by the exercise of power, the central theme of the argument concerns the indissoluble nature of the technical and socio-political skills inherent in IT consultancy practice. IT consultancy practice is not just socio-political when winning a contract - the sales pitch - and technical when developing an IT system. Rather, socio-political skills centred on the mobilization of discursive and symbolic resources are an inherent part of the construction of such systems.     

CONSTRUING THE BUSINESS PORTFOLIO: A COGNITIVE MODEL OF DIVERSIFICATION[1]

In investigating the concept of diversification and its link to performance, strategy researchers have tended to emphasize economic, technological, or market characteristics that distinguish or relate one business to another. However, by ignoring the mental maps corporate-level managers use to understand and manage strategic variety among their firm's businesses, strategy research has failed to produce an overall theory that links diversification to performance. Although the literature has begun to reaffirm the importance of developing a cognitive concept of diversification, researchers have been frustrated by the paucity of methods that are suitable for operationalizing the subjective characteristics of managerial mental maps into quantitative and reproducible measures. In addressing this deficit, this article proposes the use of the Repertory Grid, a set of procedures that facilitates elicitation and quantification of top managers' mindsets towards the firm's mix of businesses. After outlining the theoretical and methodological foundations of the Repertory Grid, the paper defines indices of grid structure and content and demonstrates the utility of grid data for assessing diversification.     

COMPETITIVE GROUPS AS COGNITIVE COMMUNITIES: THE CASE OF SCOTTISH KNITWEAR MANUFACTURERS*

This article explores how the mental models of organizational strategists determine perceptions of competing organizations and responses to competitive conditions. We first outline a cognitive perspective for discussing competitive strategy, and then use this framework to analyse the particular case of the Scottish knitwear industry. We show how the structure of that industry both determines and is determined by managerial perceptions of the environment. We conclude by drawing out a few general implications of our framework for research and theory on competitive strategy.     

EXPLORING THE NEED FOR A SHARED COGNITIVE MAP

This article reports on an experiment that was undertaken to elicit the shared perceptions of a group of individuals in relation to a particular organizational domain. These shared perceptions were termed collective beliefs, and were to be modelled in the form of a causal cognitive map. An initial conceptual framework was presented in which it was posited that groups of individuals who work closely together share a set of common beliefs which enable them to function successfully as a group. These shared beliefs are an integral part of the group's cultural identity. Collective beliefs were defined as those beliefs which are a function of the group, encompassing more than those beliefs that are shared by the individuals within the group. Following the experiment it was proposed that it is not necessary for members of a group to have a complete set of shared beliefs in order to function as a decision-making group. In the new model, collective cognitions are described as merely transitory phenomena, changing in response to circumstances. The reforming of such phenomena over time results in the formation of shared belief systems. This framework was supported by the literature.     

罗红：用镜头探测人与自然的距离

“走过了西部很多地方,偶尔也能看见一些动物,比如藏羚羊,可是他们只要一见到人总是跑得远远的。”罗红遗憾的说     

露营地，车窗外的大自然

OK,现在你对房车知识的了解已经够多了,但问题是,开着房子旅行的确够带劲、路上的美景也的确够吸引人,可人不能总是在路上,当需要暂时停靠或者泊车时,要到哪里去？这真是个好问题,在以下的文字里,你一定能找到答案。     

THE IMPACT OF IMMIGRATION ON THE LABOR MARKET

The literature on the impact of immigration on the labor market is highly controversial. The aim of this paper is to review the existing literature and draw some general conclusions on how wages and employment respond to immigration. Economic studies indicate that the impact of immigration on the average wage and employment of native workers is null or slightly positive. However, because adjustments take time, the immediate labor market effects of unexpected (as opposed to expected) migration episodes can be detrimental. Immigration also can have distributional consequences. In particular, the skill composition of immigrants matters in determining their impact on native labor market outcomes. An inflow of immigrants will tend to reduce the wages of competing native workers (with skills similar to those of the migrants), and increase those of complementary workers (with skills that complement those of immigrants). By affecting the skill composition of the workforce, immigration can create winners and losers among native workers via changes in the wage structure.     

A SURVEY OF THE EFFECTS OF THE MINIMUM WAGE ON PRICES

Abstract.  It is well established in the literature that minimum wage increases compress the wage distribution. Firms respond to these higher labour costs by reducing employment, reducing profits, or raising prices. While there are hundreds of studies on the employment effect of the minimum wage, there are merely a handful of studies on its profit effects, and only a couple of dozen studies on its price effects. Furthermore, a comprehensive survey on minimum wage price effects is not available in the literature. Given the policy relevance of this neglected issue, in this paper we summarize and critically compare the available evidence on the effects of minimum wages on prices.     

ON THE UNIMODALITY OF THE GENERALIZED NEGATIVE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

Abstract. It is shown that the generalized negative binomial distribution which is useful in random walks, queueing theory and branching processes is unimodal. When nθ(1 –θ)β-1 > 1, the mode is not at the point x = 0 and for that case, the lower and the upper bounds of the mode are obtained.