Entrepreneurial ecosystems

International business fundamentally is about creating an ecosystem environment conducive to entrepreneurship. This means fostering actions and behavior that provide a systemic interaction with multiple entities. In this editorial for the special journal issue, the historical background and origins of the entrepreneurial ecosystem concept is discussed with the view to connected different strands of literature. This provides an optimal way to understand the way entrepreneurship develops through an ecosystem logic. The theoretical perspectives for understanding entrepreneurial ecosystems are discussed that lead to a discussion on each of the articles included in the special journal issue. Themes emerging from these articles are then stated that include a focus on value co‐creation, stakeholder collaboration and entrepreneurial networks. This enables a holistic way to understand the linkages international business has with entrepreneurial ecosystems.     

Civic entrepreneurial ecosystems: Smart city emergence in Kansas City

Embedded between the broader fields of social and digital entrepreneurship, the concept of ‘smart cities’ can be conceptualized as a domain that is currently pre-paradigmatic—that is, one in which multiple yet unaligned models exist, marked by the absence of a single dominant one. Despite such shortcomings, there is a reflective similarity across ecosystems as the various players attempt to converge on a common understanding of the term smart city. The common objective of smart city implementation is to spark economic growth and social development, facilitated by collaborative dialogue and innovations in technology. We integrate theoretical lenses to explore the roles played by ecosystem actors, stakeholders, and socioeconomic and political agents in creating economic value and solving societal problems—particularly highlighting opportunities and challenges to bottom-up innovation from local entrepreneurs.     

Andrew Carnegie and the foundations of contemporary entrepreneurial philanthropy

This paper focuses upon the relationship between the business and philanthropic endeavours of world-making entrepreneurs; asking why, how and to what ends these individuals seek to extend their reach in society beyond business. It presents an original model of entrepreneurial philanthropy which demonstrates how investment in philanthropic projects can yield positive returns in cultural, social and symbolic capital, which in turn may lead to growth in economic capital. The model is applied to interpret and make sense of the career of Andrew Carnegie, whose story, far from reducing to one of making a fortune then giving it away, is revealed as more complex and more unified. His philanthropy raised his stock within the field of power, helping convert surplus funds into social networks, high social standing and intellectual currency, enabling him to engage in world making on a grand scale.     

Entrepreneurial ecosystems: Future research trends

Entrepreneurial ecosystems are gaining ascendancy as one of the most popular topics discussed in the international business literature. This is due to the way they incorporate cultural, economic, social, and political considerations in an evolutionary view of how entities interact in society. Due to an increased emphasis on digitalization and the knowledge economy, it helps to take an ecosystem view when discussing and analyzing entrepreneurship. The aim of this article is to discuss future research trajectories in research, practice, and policy on entrepreneurial ecosystems. Thereby contributing an anthropocosmic view to how entrepreneurship exists and its role in contributing to a more open and inclusive global economy. Specific research and managerial tracks are stated that highlight the importance of investing in an entrepreneurial ecosystem mindset where everything is connected.     

A comparative analysis of the entrepreneurial orientation/growth relationship in service firms and manufacturing firms

This article builds on the recently increasingly mentioned notion that entrepreneurship in the service sector is a worthwhile, but clearly underresearched topic. Using a sample of 1,612 small- and medium-size enterprises from the four German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, and using structural equation modeling, this article finds that service firms have a significantly higher entrepreneurial orientation (EO) than manufacturing firms – both on the overall level as well as for each of the three sub-categories proactiveness, innovativeness, and risk-taking. With regards to the positive relationship between a firm's EO and its growth aspirations, nevertheless, no significant differences could be identified. Accordingly, this study shows that EO is a strategic orientation of highest value for service firms as well, under the premise of growth-orientation.     

Factors affecting the performance of entrepreneurial service firms

In the current climate, the importance of the role played by entrepreneurship as a palpable reality that enables economic growth at a macroeconomic level, and as a factor that favours the progress of companies at a microeconomic level, has made it the subject of continual analyses from many different perspectives and in a variety of contexts by researchers from around the world. In this study, Spanish entrepreneurial firms in the service sector are analysed in order to determine the factors that influence their performance.     

Gender,entrepreneurial characteristics,and success: Evidence from Ethiopia

Africa‐based research on gender and entrepreneurship is very limited. This study compares the characteristics and relative successes of men and women entrepreneurs in Ethiopia with a view of isolating the unique hurdles encountered by female entrepreneurs. While both genders in this sample were pulled, rather than pushed, toward entrepreneurship, women were more influenced by family factors. With regard to personality traits, men entrepreneurs in this study were generally more confident in their ability to succeed, whereas women exhibited higher fear of failure and external locus of control. Women entrepreneurs also reported lower business and entrepreneurial skills and relied more on government funding. Furthermore, male entrepreneurs outperformed females in terms of sales, employment growth, and profitability. The study identifies areas in which the skills and competencies of Ethiopian women entrepreneurs can be developed through targeted training programs to enable them to more clearly recognize entrepreneurial opportunities and achieve business growth. The findings of this study and the concrete suggestions it offers to strengthen the success of Ethiopian women entrepreneurs may be relevant to other African countries as well.     

Discovering the entrepreneurial micro‐ecosystem: The case of a corporate accelerator

Faced with a proliferation of initiatives like corporate accelerators, entrepreneurial ecosystems see emerge new spaces that we can call entrepreneurial micro‐ecosystems. A micro‐ecosystem is a local open system interacting with the entrepreneurial ecosystem and driven by an actor or group of actors capable of fostering dynamics of innovation and entrepreneurship. The literature has tended to focus on the macro and meso levels leaving behind the microlevel and the strategies implemented by the actors that could lead to the creation of micro‐ecosystems. In this study, we consider corporate accelerators, still little studied, as entrepreneurial micro‐ecosystems. We propose to take a structural and strategic approach in order to better understand the attributes and the strategies put in place by these actors from a multilevel approach. A qualitative study was conducted on a corporate accelerator and the results reveal the importance of strategic attributes in terms of legitimacy, coopetition, and business model.     

New entrepreneurial ventures in a globalized world: The role of market orientation

The present study examines the performance consequences of a market orientation for new entrepreneurial ventures in a globalized world. We show that market orientation indeed positively impacts the performance of new entrepreneurial ventures, regardless of their geographical setting. While market orientation turns out to be a general success factor in a globalized world, the strength of the performance relationship however is contingent to the national culture as one major differentiator between geographical settings. The effect turns out to be stronger in collectivist and high uncertainty avoidance cultures. Findings are derived based on large samples with German and Thai new entrepreneurial ventures. Partial least square is applied as the method of analysis.

Digitally immersive,international entrepreneurial experiences

This study explores how entrepreneurs acquire international experiences within physical and digital business environments, and how these experiences influence the way international opportunities are recognised and exploited. Based on multiple case study evidence, including in-depth interviews with international entrepreneurs from 16 small virtual service firms, findings suggest entrepreneurs who interact with digital technologies in a responsive way in international settings may promote the emergence of a new type of experience: “digital internationalisation experience”. This new type of experience, in turn, contributes to enhanced idea generation and opportunity confidence that enable international entrepreneurial exploitation.     

Coronavirus and international business: An entrepreneurial ecosystem perspective

Covid‐19 (Coronavirus) is a health pandemic that has significantly affected the global economy and fundamentally changed society. The impacts of coronavirus are most apparent at the international business level due to the restrictions on travel and mobility of labor. This has necessitated an entrepreneurial outlook for businesses in order to survive in the current market environment. The aim of this article is to discuss the implications of the coronavirus for international business by taking an entrepreneurial ecosystem point of view. This enables a reflection on how the pandemic has impacted various entities of the ecosystem in terms of stakeholder engagement. Suggestions for acting in a more dynamic and innovative manner are provided that highlight the importance of utilizing entrepreneurial ecosystems in times of crises.     

Aligning regional and business strategies: Looking inside the Basque Country entrepreneurial innovation ecosystem

The current socio‐economic scenarios have generated several challenges for any organization. Regional authorities have designed policies that combine supply–demand needs and innovative entrepreneurship programs. The alignment between regional and business strategies has become critical to ensure the necessary resources, skills and capabilities in the region. This article analyses the alignment of regional strategies (entrepreneurial innovation ecosystems) and business strategies (development of new entrepreneurial innovations). By adopting mixed theoretical approaches, we proposed a conceptual model to understand the role of institutional strategies on the definition of business strategies. Given the nature of this study, our methodological design combines a case study approach and an action research approach. Our results provide insights into the positive outcomes generated when regional strategies and business strategies are aligned.     

Developing an entrepreneurial mindset in supply chain managers: Exposing a powerful potential

Entrepreneurship and supply chain management (SCM), respectively, have enjoyed meteoric rises in business practice and scholarly attention over the past three decades. Further, each of the two disciplines has much to offer the other. Yet, we have not witnessed sustained, meaningful integration of principles, practices, and influences despite powerful potential. This paper explores this potential by featuring prospects for entrepreneurship to influence SCM, and vice versa, bringing an entrepreneurial mindset to SCM and supply chain orientation (SCO) to entrepreneurial activities. In particular, we illustrate a validated assessment and diagnostic tool, the Corporate Entrepreneurship Assessment Instrument (CEAI), adapted for supply chain managers with the intent of instilling corporate entrepreneurial activity among supply chain professionals. Granted, supply chain managers are typically tasked with meeting expectations toward customer service effectiveness, efficiency, asset utilization, and safety. Yet, we believe that forming an organizational environment conducive to entrepreneurial thinking could be extremely valuable in the supply chain realm, enhancing capabilities like agility, plasticity, and responsiveness such that innovation and business growth are achieved alongside traditional SCM expectations. Further, we feature several avenues for future research at the interface of entrepreneurship and SCM.     

Changing Paradigms of International Entrepreneurship Strategy

This article identifies sweeping transformations taking place in the contemporary international business environment, and discusses their impact on international entrepreneurship. We focus on two overarching trends: (1) the demise of the nation-state as the relevant unit around which international business activity is organised and conducted; and (2) the demise of the stand-alone firm, with a hierarchic distribution of power and control, as the principal unit of business competition. We then discuss an alternate approach to internationalisation: one that involves a multi-polar distribution of power and control. Traditional approaches to internationalisation focus on the hierarchic centralised firm, with a uni-polar distribution of power and control. We suggest that the world is moving towards multi-polar networks of firms, involved in what we term symbiotic management: each entity benefits from working together within a multi-polar network. This includes large corporations as well as small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). As corporations out-source to specialised firms–increasingly SMEs–power and control are dispersed among independently owned firms that are cooperating voluntarily for increased efficiency and profit. The new paradigm moves from a focus on the firm, towards a focus on relationships within multi-polar networks. We conclude by illustrating how this emerging competitive paradigm may impact on the strategic management of small firms, with examples from a real-world company.     

How entrepreneurship ecosystem influences the development of frugal innovation and informal entrepreneurship

This article critically analyses how the entrepreneurial ecosystem and institutional environment influences the development of frugal innovation and informal entrepreneurship. There is a dearth of empirical research on African entrepreneurship ecosystems and complementors that produce innovations in the informal sector. We address this gap, by examining why and how informal businesses operate and evolve. Based on a qualitative approach, interviewing 20 business owners in Nigeria, two focus groups meeting with 5 and 7 business associations leaders, respectively, we examine the role of institutional environments, how entrepreneurs operate and overcome the barriers to entrepreneurship. The results reveal a model of determinants of frugal innovation and informal entrepreneurship ecosystem comprising formal/informal rules, access to market, and family as important elements that act as a means to effective knowledge flows, networking, capital, and resources sharing.     

Next-generation entrepreneurial identity in family business systems: The influence of role-changing events on the understanding of legacy,individual identity,and transgenerational entrepreneurship of next-generation family business principals

The paper addresses how the understanding of family business legacy, individual identity, and transgenerational entrepreneurship of next-generation principals is affected by role changing events in family business systems. The paper uses the insights of a focus group of 38 next-generation family business principals of ultrahigh-net-worth business families from 14 countries. It corroborates that parents and role models are influencing factors on the understanding and perception of family identity, values, and transgenerational entrepreneurship. Identity inflection points during moments of expected and unexpected role changes, such as family business succession, can either positively or negatively impact the appreciation of a next-generation principal regarding legacy, identity, and transgenerational entrepreneurship. Based on the results of the qualitative interviews and peer group discussions, the findings indicate how identity inflection points affect the preservation of the next-generation family business principal's identity and family identity during a moments of role changes in family businesses and are a bottleneck for transgenerational entrepreneurship.     

Organizational hybrids as biological hybrids: Insights for research on the relationship between social enterprise and the entrepreneurial ecosystem

Using the study of hybridization in evolutionary biology as metaphorical inspiration, I offer a thought experiment about the emergence and proliferation of social enterprise and the influence of hybrid organizing on the entrepreneurial ecosystem. After establishing a number of analogues between biological and organizational hybrids, I analyze the degree to which social enterprise may be indicative of hybrid speciation – i.e., a new organizational form – versus introgressive hybridization – i.e., a variant of a more traditional organizational form. I then use the metaphor to examine whether social enterprise: (1) possesses distinct rules and features, (2) is shaped by or shaping the entrepreneurial ecosystem, (3) still remains a hybrid organization, and (4) might even be considered an invasive species.     

零售业数字化转型机理研究

在数字经济时代,数字化转型已成为零售业高质量发展的必然趋势。近年来,我国零售企业纷纷进行数字化转型,呈现出从技术应用向数字赋能转变、从渠道线上化向线上线下一体化转变、从业务数据化向数据业务化转变、从营销数字化向全面数字化转变以及从大企业主导向大中小企业协同转变的特征,整体上处于探索阶段,存在着全面数字化战略规划缺失、数字化基础和能力较弱、需求驱动型供应链支撑不足和企业组织架构改革相对滞后等问题。零售业数字化转型的内在机理是数字化技术驱动的以消费需求为核心的生产供给体系和流通供给体系的变革,即以消费者需求为出发点,通过线上线下多维立体场景打造、供应链逆向整合、数据资源积累和数据分析能力构建、业务流程再造与组织架构变革构建数字化商业生态系统,打破商品生产与消费之间的时间与空间限制,重构人货场的关系,提升生产与流通体系供给质量和供给效率。     

A new innovation paradigm: European cohesion policy and the retreat of public science in countries in Europe's scientific periphery

This article seeks to undertake a critical assessment of the changing position of public science in the entrepreneurial ecosystem of the countries on the periphery of European research. These countries are driven by new innovation paradigm based on entrepreneurship, which are implemented within the European Smart specialization strategy (S3). This article argues that S3 is widely implemented in the cohesion countries and, while it provides substantial resources for science, technology, and innovation, it fails to provide sustainability in the public research sector. This has direct implications for policies concerning innovation and entrepreneurial ecosystems. In order to prove the thesis, the article provides theoretical argumentation for emergence of a new innovation paradigm, driven by the rise of the entrepreneurial ecosystem, its incorporation into S3, and a consequent retreat of science policy in favor of entrepreneurial policy. The empirical analysis is focused on the funding trends seen in the business and public research sectors over the last decade (2008–2017), which have clearly shown that S3 has not contributed, despite expectations, to an increase in public expenditure for science. This signifies S3's neglect of public research within entrepreneurial ecosystems and challenges the ability of S3 to reduce wide disparities in research and innovation performance across the European Union. This ultimately endangers the innovation potential of the entrepreneurial ecosystem itself.     

Digital consumption and the extended self

Abstract

There are numerous and substantial effects of the use of digital technologies on consumers. I focus here on the ways in which these technologies have brought changes to the extended self. This review builds on earlier work considering digital subjectivities. I find that the human–machine digital interface results in a series of challenging theoretical issues. In considering these issues at the broadest level I also address how the affordances of digital technologies may cause us to rethink the notion of extended self, the body and the relationship between objects and consumers in digital environments.