Corporate codes of conduct: A collective conscience and continuum

This paper discusses the vast continuum between the letter of the law (legality) and the spirit of the law (ethics or morality). Further, the authors review the fiduciary duties owed by the firm to its various publics. These aspects must be considered in developing a corporate code of ethics. The underlying qualitative characteristics of a code include clarity, comprehensiveness and enforceability. While ethics is indigenous to a society, every code of ethics will necessarily reflect the corporate culture from which that code stems and be responsive to the innumerable situations for which it was created. Several examples have been provided to illustrate the ease of applicability of these concepts.Cecily Raiborn, Ph.D., C.P.A. is an Associate Professor of Accounting at Loyola University in New Orleans, Louisiana. She is interested in integrating the study of ethics with all academic disciplines, and especially with accounting.Dinah Payne, J.D., M.B.A. is an Assistant Professor of Management at the University of New Orleans. She also is interested in the application of ethics to all fields of study, and particularly with law.     

International codes of conduct: An analysis of ethical reasoning

Four international codes of conduct (those of the International Chamber of Commerce, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the International Labor Organization, and the United Nations Commission on Transnational Corporations) are analyzed to determine the ethical bases of the behaviors they prescribe for multinational enterprises (MNEs). Although the four codes emphasize different aspects of business behavior, there is substantial agreement regarding many of the moral duties of MNEs. It is suggested that MNEs are morally bound to recognize the codes and to take them into account when engaging in international business.Kathleen A. Getz is a doctoral candidate at the Katz Graduate School of Business of the University of Pittsburgh.For another interpretation, see William C. Frederick's current paper, Multilateral Compacts as a Source of Normative Corporate Guidelines: The Emergence of a Transcultural Corporate Ethic.     

Decoding codes: The dialogue between consumers and suppliers through codes of conduct in the European Community

The second Consumer Action Programme of the European Community (1981) has introduced the idea of a dialogue between producers and consumers, leading to voluntary agreements or codes of conduct. Today, several types of codes exist within the area of the European Community. They differ in their geographic origin, their adoption procedure and their modus operandi. Many codes are good examples of a new type of rule-making in European consumer affairs, namely sponsored regulation. In between the public and the private normative order, a grey area of paralegal norms is existing and developing steadily. The EC authorities often prefer to provide the conditions for rule-making by private parties instead of producing norms themselves. In those cases, codes of conduct may replace the law, substitute it, or add to it. Codes of conduct are not the only possible output of the dialogue between producers and consumers, nor are they the only example of sponsored regulation. Others are model contracts, complaint boards, and standardization institutes.

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Der Dialog zwischen Verbrauchern und Anbietern mit Hilfe von Verhaltenskodices in der Europäischen Gemeinschaft

Zusammenfassung Das zweite Verbraucheraktionsprogramm der Europäischen Gemeinschaft aus dem Jahr 1981 führt die Idee eines Dialoges zwischen Produzenten und Konsumenten ein. Dieser Dialog soll zu freiwilligen Vereinbargungen über Verhaltensrichtlinien führen. Der Beitrag gibt zunächst einen Überblick über die recht unterschiedlichen Formen solcher Kodices im Bereich der Europäischen Gemeinschaft. Unter geographischem Gesichtspunkt werden nationale, internationale und übernationale Kodices unterschieden, unter dem Gesichtspunkt des Vereinbarungsverfahrens unilaterale, bilaterale und trilaterale Kodices, und schließlich unter dem des modus operandi ursprüngliche, gemeinschaftliche und administrierte Kodices.Zahlreiche Kodizes sind ein Beispiel für einen neuen Typ von Regulierung im Bereich europäischer Verbraucherangelegenheiten, nämlich geförderte Regulierung. Diese Form der Regulierung entwickelt sich zwischen den klassischen Formen, nämlich dem staatlich geschaffenen Recht einerseits und der privat geschaffenen Selbstregulierung andererseits. Dazwischen wächst eine Grauzone mit rechtsähnlichen Regelungen. Statt selbst Normen zu schaffen, regen die EC-Behörden die beteiligten Parteien verstärkt an, sich ihre Normen zu schaffen, indem sie ihnen die formellen und inhaltlichen Bedingungen dafür zur Verfügung stellen. Kodices sind ein Beispiel für solche geförderte Regulierung, aber nicht das einzige. Die Beziehung zwischen Kodices und Gesetzgebung ist oft komplex. Kodices können rechtliche Vorschriften ersetzen (aktive Deregulierung), anstelle von Gesetzgebung treten (vorbeugende Regulierung) oder zur Gesetzgebung hinzutreten.Schließlich sind Verhaltenskodices nicht das einzige Ergebnis des Dialoges zwischen Produzenten und Konsumenten. Andere sind Musterverträge, die von den beteiligten Seiten ausgehandelt werden, ferner Beschwerdestellen zur Behandlung von Verbruaucherbeschwerden, sowie Standardisierungseinrichtungen, die seit der neuen Politik der Kommission neue Bedeutung gewinnen.

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Luc Huyse is Professor of Sociology of Law at the Faculty of Law, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Law and Society Institute, Hooverplein 10, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium. Stephan Parmentier is a Research Assistant at the Law and Society Institute. The Research was supported by grant OT/88/2 from the Research Fund of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.     

Comparison of codes of conduct for multinational corporations

The conflict between increasing technical and economic integration and a resistance to political integration has led to tension between multinational enterprises (MNEs) and nation states. One result has been a growth in pressures to regulate MNEs, often through codes of conduct. This article compares five codes of conduct prepared by groups ranging from the OECD to the non-aligned countries.While substantial areas of agreement are found, important disagreements over the objectives and provisions of a code of conduct do emerge on a North-South or rich-poor axis. The most important disagreements involve resolution of investor-host government disutes and questions of national treatment of investors.Although the major disagreements between rich and poor countries will be difficult to resolve, the article posits that the process of code development per se is valuable as a means of facilitating the transmutation of symbolic into concrete differences. The development of a reasonably explicit code for regulation of MNEs requires that the parties concentrate on relatively narrow issues areas and permissible behavior rather than symbolism and ideology. While important, and perhaps even interactable problems remain, it is suggested that the process of code development is important, as the relatively concrete differences that result are at least potentially subject to resolution through rational negotiation. Symbolic differences obviously are not.The article also suggests a minimal scope of issue areas to be covered if a code is to be an effective instrument.     

The internal significance of codes of conduct in retail companies

This paper focuses on the significance of codes of conduct (CoCs) in the internal work context of two retail companies. A stepwise approach is used. First, the paper identifies in what way employees use and refer to CoCs internally. Second, the function and relevance of CoCs inside the two companies are identified. Third, the paper explains why CoCs tend to function in the identified ways. In both cases, the CoCs are clearly decoupled in the sense that they do not concern the immediate work context of the employees. Counter‐intuitively, this facilitates the process of establishing the CoCs. Even though the CoCs are not directly relevant for the employees, they are accepted and embraced with regard to contents, focus and function. Above all, the CoCs seem to confirm and even strengthen employee identity. On the basis of these observations, it is suggested that CoCs should not only be valued in light of their direct organisational consequences or lack of such consequences. The issue is not just whether CoCs are decoupled or not. Rather, it is argued that researchers should consider more closely a two‐level analysis that takes into account not only the concrete application of CoCs but also their function and meaning. An implication of this is that what might appear as a decoupled code cannot be dismissed as irrelevant to the ‘core’ business processes of the organisation.     

Ethical codes of conduct: Deficient in guidance for the Canadian accounting profession

Current trends toward increased pace, more complex substance and lower tolerance of error have caused the financial marketplace to rely more heavily on the integrity of financial data and, therefore, of those who prepare the financial statements. At the same time, these trends place higher challenges before professional accountants and it is essential that they have excellent ethical guidance to live up to modern expectations. However, in view of the current codes of conduct, an accountant may not have a clear understanding of what priority of interests to satisfy, who can be consulted for advice, to whom to report misdeeds, what protection is offered a right-doer and what sanction will be forthcoming for doing wrong. Possible solutions are offered to these problems in ways that ought to strengthen the accounting profession and prevent unscrupulous companies from taking advantage of both members of the profession and the unsuspecting public. To provide the appropriate quality of service to society in the future, the Canadian accounting profession should offer its members the improved guidance and enhanced mechanisms for confidential consultation, assistance and protection outlined herein. Leonard J. Brooks is a Professor of Accounting at the Faculty of Management of the University of Toronto. He is the author of Canadian Corporate Social Performance, published by the Society of Management Accountants of Canada (1986); editor of the Corporate Ethics Monitor, and Vice-Chairman of the Canadian Centre for Ethics and Corporate Policy.     

Ethical aspects of e‐business: the use of codes of conduct

This paper examines the establishment and enforcement of codes of conduct governing the use of Internet technology as a means of providing a basis of trust in the e‐business context. The discussion draws on the findings of a survey of 80 UK organisations, and considers the relationship between factors such as organisation size, type, use of IT, the length of time with an Internet connection and the use of a code of conduct, as well as the specific areas of Internet technology covered by codes of conduct. The paper also investigates the extent of disciplinary cases associated with the misuse of Internet technology, as well as the ownership and responsibility for implementing codes of conduct. The survey results suggest that the use of codes of conduct varies significantly from organisation to organisation, and that those who initiate such codes are not those seen as being responsible for implementing them. The results also indicate that a growing number of employees are disciplined for misuse of facilities offered by Internet technology.     

Triple bottom-line reporting as social grammar: integrating corporate social responsibility and corporate codes of conduct

This paper argues that many objections against, and limitations of, corporate codes of conduct can be addressed if a meaningful integration can be established between CSR and ethics management practices within corporations. It is proposed that the notion of the triple bottom-line finally presents corporations with a mechanism to establish this integration. The paper draws on the second South African King Report on Corporate Governance, which succeeded in integrating corporate governance, ethics management and triple bottom-line reporting by advocating what it called 'Integrated Sustainability'. The paper argues that this is an example of how ethics management initiatives like code development become more meaningful, if they can be related to the corporation's CSR initiatives and reporting practices. Integration between ethics management and CSR in the context of triple bottom-line reporting reframes corporate success in a way that makes both ethics management and CSR activities more meaningful. In fact, it is argued that in the absence of a social grammar that establishes this integration, neither codes nor CSR can foster meaningful organizational integrity.     

Genome-wide association studies in economics and entrepreneurship research: promises and limitations

The recently developed genome-wide association study (GWAS) design enables the identification of genes specifically associated with economic outcomes such as occupational and other choices. This is a promising new approach for economics research which we aim to apply to the choice for entrepreneurship. However, due to multiple testing issues, very large sample sizes are needed to differentiate between true and false positives. For a GWAS on entrepreneurship, we expect that a sample size of at least 30,000 observations is required.     

Towards a code of conduct for the tourism industry: An ethics model

There are four areas of concern in the ethical pursuit of tourism. Too often, tourism development is planned without consideration of the local environment's or community's needs and characteristics. An ethical treatment of the environment and community should involve consideration and participation in the planning and decision-making process, as well as implementing effective guidelines to assure fairness in employing both traditional and non-traditional employees. Finally, the industry must pay special attention to the target market: tourists. Dinah Payne is an Associate Professor of Management at the University of New Orleans. Her teaching and research interests include business ethics, the legal environment of business, international business and international management. She has published articles in the Journal of Business Ethics,the Labor Law Journal,the Journal of Managerial Issuesand Management Accounting.She is the current Vice President/Program Chair of the Southern Academy of Legal Studies in Business. Frédéric Dimanche is an Assistant Professor of the School of Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism at the University of New Orleans. His teaching and research interests include tourist behavior and tourism marketing. He has published articles in the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing,the Journal of Leisure Research,and Leisure Sciences.He is the President of the Travel and Tourism Research Association, South Central Chapter.     

Stock market data and trade policy: dumping and the semiconductor industry

This article uses stock market data to examine the effects of cost-based dumping and the subsequent trade agreements between the United States and Japan on U.S. semiconductor firms. Our empirical results show that the initial indication of dumping by Japanese semiconductor firms had a significant negative impact on stock prices of U.S. firms. On the other hand, the subsequent market-sharing trade agreement, under which Japan agreed to prevent the dumping of Japan-manufactured chips in the United States and the United States agreed to suspend the application of antidumping duties, had a positive impact on the stock prices of U.S. semiconductor firms. Our findings support the neoclassical trade theory that the imposition of import relief leads to a wealth transfer to producers.     

Exchange-rate volatility and industry trade between Canada and Mexico

While it has long been assumed that exchange-rate volatility introduces a level of uncertainty that helps reduce trade flows, this need not be the case for particular country pairs or for specific products. This study examines the case of trade between Canada and Mexico—two members of the highly integrated North American market. Trade flows are examined for a number of specific products using the “bounds testing” cointegration approach over the period from 1973 to 2006. Relatively few industries see a long-run reduction in trade volumes due to volatility. This indicates that multinational producers in these integrated markets might be able to hedge against exchange-rate risk. Since major Mexican exports appear to see the largest reductions, Mexico might have a stronger incentive to reduce the volatility of the peso.     

Corporate codes of ethics and sales force behavior: A case study

A growing public concern regarding ethical business conduct has stimulated marketing research in the ethics area. This study is the first empirical research to investigate the relationship between a code of ethics and sales force behavior. The findings present preliminary evidence that a well communicated code of ethics may be related to ethical sales force behavior. Furthermore, it appears that a sales force that is employed in such an environment can be profiled as being relatively high in job performance and receiving equally high satisfaction from their positions. Suggestions are made for future research and recommendations are offered for marketing practitioners.     

Exchange-rate variability and industry trade flows between Malaysia and Japan

This research investigates the exchange-rate risk sensitivity of Malaysian bilateral trade flows with its important trading partner, Japan. To this end, bounds testing approach to co-integration is applied using industry level data over the monthly period 2000–2013. Findings suggest that above the one-third of the total co-integrated export (43.86%) and import (34.54%), industries experiences the ringgit/yen variability effect in the short run. However, this effect sustains in relatively less number of export (14.03%) and import (32.73%) industries in the long run. It is interesting to note that exchange-rate risk boosts trade flows in the majority of these affected industries.     

经济全球化与反垄断法面临的新问题——中国反垄断立法的宏观借鉴

随着经济全球化的发展,跨国反垄断现象越来越受到各国政府的重视,中国政府也不得不从经济全球化角度考虑本国的反垄断立法。认真对待国际反垄断领域的新情况,吸取各国反垄断法在国际适用方面的立法经验,是我们有效地参与全球经济活动的前提条件之一。本文从经济全球化所产生的反垄断领域的新问题入手,讨论了国际反垄断法实施的现实困难。     

The effects of comparative product testing on industry and trade: Findings of a research project

According to findings presented in this paper, comparative product tests substantially influence the market behaviour of industrial and trade businesses in the Federal Republic of Germany. Moreover, they most likely have an impact on market structures and market performance as well. This points to the enormous potential of product testing as an instrument of consumer and anti-trust policies. There is some evidence, however, that product testing may also produce effects which are less desirable from a consumer or anti-trust point of view. Yet, these unwanted side effects of product testing could largely be prevented by observing a number of measures, aimed at improving product test procedures. It is therefore no doubt feasible to improve the degree to which product testing meets the goals of consumer and anti-trust policy.

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Wirkungen vergleichender Warentests in Industrie und Handel — Ergebnisse eines Forschungsprojekts

Zusammenfassung Vergleichende Warentests haben nach den im vorliegenden Beitrag präsentierten Untersuchungsergebnissen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland einen erheblichen Einfluß auf das Marktverhalten von Industrie- und Handelsunternehmen und wirken sich darüber hinaus auch mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit auf die Marktstrukturen und die Marktergebnisse aus. Diese Perspektiven lassen das enorme Wirkungspotential erkennen, das dem Warentest als Instrument der Verbraucher- und Wettbewerbspolitik zukommt. Es liegen jedoch Hinweise darauf vor, daß der Warentest teilweise auch Wirkungen entfaltet, die in verbraucher- und wettbewerbspolitischer Hinsicht nicht uneingeschränkt zu begrüßen sind. Der darin erkennbaren Gefahr unbeabsichtigter Nebenwirkungen des Warentests ließe sich aber durch die Verwirklichung einer Reihe vorgeschlagener Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Warentestpraxis in erheblichem Maße vorbeugen. Eine Verbesserung des verbraucher- und wettbewerbspolitischen Zielerreichungsgrades des Warentests liegt daher durchaus im Bereich des Möglichen.The paper is based on the research project The efficacy of comparative product testing for suppliers and consumers carried out by the research term Konsumenteninformation at the University of Mannheim under the sponsorship of the Federal Ministry of Research and Technology. The research team was led by Hans Raffée and Günter Silberer. Other team members were Friedrich Förster, Wolfgang Fritz, Gosbert Gottmann, Harald Hilger, Bernd Kierdorf, and Ulrich Schwetz. The final project reports are being published by Campus-Verlag (Frankfurt and New York); see Raffée & Silberer, 1984, and Silberer & Raffée, 1984.Translation into English of this paper was carried out by Martin Marganus.

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Hans Raffée is Professor of Marketing at the University of Mannheim. Wolfgang Fritz is a Research Assistant at the Faculty for Business Administration at the same university. Their mailing address is: Universität Mannheim, Schloß, D-6800 Mannheim 1, Federal Republic of Germany.     

对外贸易对我国制造业劳动就业影响的投入产出法分析

对外贸易对我国劳动就业有着重要的影响,本文运用投入产出法分析了2007年外贸对我国制造业劳动就业的影响。结果显示外贸对我国制造业劳动就业有着十分显著的净正效应,2007年由外贸引致的净就业岗位达17131699个:这个数值大约占我国制造业总劳动就业人数的20%。进一步分析了我国与几个主要的贸易伙伴:美国、日本、韩国、德国、英国、法国、印度、越南的贸易引致的就业效应,发现与美国贸易给我国带来的净就业效应最大。最后提出了政策建议。     

构建健康有序的外贸服务产业体系

一位摩托车企业海外部的老总告诉笔者,中国摩托车企业在国内市场几乎处于亏损状态,唯有靠出口才能维持企业的正常运转,而利润点主要来自政府的“出口退税”,如今出口退税制度本身存在一定的缺陷,企业开拓海外市场不仅面临着复杂的外部环境影响,连来自本国政府的有利支持条件也在弱化。